Esperanto Grammar List

Esperanto is spelled as it sounds, so you can read any word aloud: kafo (coffee), lernejo (school), amiko (friend).

The letter ĥ sounds like ch in Scottish loch or German Bach. It appears in only a few words: ĥoro (choir), eĥo (echo), monaĥo (monk).

Ĉ sounds like ch in church, ĝ like j in jam, ĵ like the s in measure and ŝ like sh in shoe.

Esperanto has no grammatical gender, and a verb keeps one form for every person: mi estas, vi estas, ŝi estas (I am, you are, she is).

In La kato vidas la hundon (the cat sees the dog), kato is the subject and hundon is the object, marked with -n.

-o ends a noun, -a an adjective, -e an adverb, -i the infinitive, and -as -is -os -us -u other verb forms: paroli (to speak), parolo (speech), parola (spoken), parole (aloud).

The alphabet is the Latin alphabet without q, w, x and y, plus six letters with a mark: ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ and ŭ.

The vowels a, e, i, o and u are close to the sounds in father, bed, machine, go and rule. Hold each one steady, without the glide that English adds to day and go. Length does not matter.

To spell a word aloud, say the letter names: a, bo, co, ĉo, do, e, fo, go, ĝo, ho, ĥo, i, jo, ĵo, ko, lo, mo, no, o, po, ro, so, ŝo, to, u, ŭo, vo, zo.

If you cannot type the six letters, quick notes can use cx gx hx jx sx ux (the x-system) or ch gh hh jh sh u (the h-system). Finished text uses ĉ ĝ ĥ ĵ ŝ ŭ.

Most roots come from the languages of Western Europe, so many words look familiar: telefono, hotelo, biero, tablo, ŝtrumpo.

Say Es-pe-RAN-to, a-MI-ko (friend), fa-mi-LI-o (family) and ho-DI-aŭ (today) with the loudest part on the second-to-last vowel.

Ana amas Kenjin and Kenjin Ana amas both mean Ana loves Kenji. Subject, verb, object is the usual order.

The root san- plus -a makes sana (healthy), mal- in front makes malsana (ill), and -o makes malsano (illness).

Zamenhof's sixteen rules say that la is the only article, nouns end in -o, adjectives in -a and adverbs in -e, the plural adds -j and the object adds -n.

Six pairs end in j or ŭ: aj, ej, oj, uj, aŭ and eŭ. Say the vowel, then add a very short j or ŭ.

C sounds like ts in cats, j like y in yes, and g is always hard as in go. Ŭ is a very short u that follows a or e.

Add -a to a root to describe a noun: bela (beautiful), granda (big), nova (new), bona (good), as in bela urbo and nova libro.

Mi parolas, vi laboras, ŝi legas, ni manĝas (I speak, you work, she reads, we eat). Ŝi legas means both she reads and she is reading.

paroli (to speak), labori (to work), manĝi (to eat), trinki (to drink). Dictionaries list verbs this way.

libro, libroj (books); kato, katoj (cats); amiko, amikoj (friends).

Add -o to a root to name a thing, a person, an animal or an idea: libro (book), kato (cat), domo (house), amiko (friend), urbo (city).

bona amiko and amiko bona both mean a good friend, but before is more usual: la nova libro (the new book).

La domo estas bela (the house is beautiful), La domoj estas belaj (the houses are beautiful).

A plain statement goes subject, verb, object, as in English: Ana havas katon (Ana has a cat), Kenji trinkas teon (Kenji drinks tea).

Esperanto uses a capital for names and the start of a sentence, but not for the days of the week (lundo), languages (la angla) or the people of a country (la araboj). Month names are proper names, so PMEG recommends a capital letter for them, but many writers use a small letter (januaro), as the examples here do.

A number comes before the noun, and the noun is plural for anything above one: unu libro, du libroj, tri katoj (one book, two books, three cats).

The noun stands alone: Mi havas katon (I have a cat), Ana legas libron (Ana reads a book), Jen domo (here is a house).

The numbers are nul (0), unu (1), du (2), tri (3), kvar (4), kvin (5), ses (6), sep (7), ok (8), naŭ (9) and dek (10), and a number never takes -j or -n itself.

Add -n to the noun that receives the action: Mi vidas la katon (I see the cat), Ni trinkas kafon (we drink coffee). The subject never takes -n.

mi legas, vi legas, ŝi legas, ni legas, ili legas. Only the subject word shows who acts.

granda kato, grandaj katoj (big cats); nova libro, novaj libroj (new books).

Greetings wish something good, so the noun takes -n: Bonan matenon! (good morning), Bonan tagon! (good day), Bonan vesperon! (good evening), Bonan nokton! (good night), Bonvenon! (welcome).

Dankon (thank you) and multan dankon (many thanks) thank someone, and you can answer with Ne dankinde (you are welcome); bonvolu (please) asks politely, and pardonu (sorry, excuse me) apologizes: Bonvolu atendi (please wait).

Use el for the place you come from and en for the place you live: Mi estas el Brazilo (I am from Brazil), Mi loĝas en Pollando (I live in Poland).

mi estas, vi estas, ŝi estas, ni estas, ili estas: Mi estas feliĉa (I am happy).

Mi estas studento (I am a student), La kafo estas varma (the coffee is hot).

En la ĉambro estas tablo (there is a table in the room). The noun after estas takes no -n.

Havi means to have and takes an object with -n: Mi havas du fratojn (I have two brothers), Ana havas hundon (Ana has a dog), Mi ne havas tempon (I have no time).

Jen points at something and takes the plain form of the noun: Jen la domo (here is the house), Jen Ana kaj Kenji (here are Ana and Kenji).

Ĉu ŝi estas hejme? Jes, ŝi estas hejme. (Is she at home? Yes, she is at home.) Ne, ŝi ne estas hejme. (No, she is not at home.)

Ana kaj Kenji (Ana and Kenji), Mi legas kaj ŝi skribas (I read and she writes).

Ask Kiel vi fartas? (how are you?) and answer Mi fartas bone (I am fine), tre bone (very well) or ne tre bone (not very well), then return the question with Kaj vi? (and you?).

La means the, for every noun, singular or plural: la libro (the book), la libroj (the books). Names of people take no la.

Say Mi ne komprenas (I do not understand), Mi ne scias (I do not know), Ripetu, bonvolu (please repeat) and Parolu malrapide, bonvolu (please speak slowly) when you need help.

Say Mi nomiĝas Ana or Mia nomo estas Ana (my name is Ana) and ask Kiel vi nomiĝas? (what is your name?); answer an introduction with Mi ĝojas renkonti vin or Mi ĝojas konatiĝi kun vi (I am glad to meet you).

mi (I), vi (you), li (he), ŝi (she) and ĝi (it, for a thing or an animal): Mi vidas hundon. Ĝi estas granda.

Mi amas vin (I love you), Ŝi vidas nin (she sees us), Ĉu vi aŭdas min? (do you hear me?).

Mi ne manĝas (I am not eating), Ŝi ne estas hejme (she is not at home).

ni (we), vi (you) and ili (they, for people and things): Ni laboras (we work), Ili manĝas (they eat).

Saluton is hello at any time of day, and ĝis revido (goodbye, see you again), ĝis (bye) and adiaŭ (farewell) end a meeting: Saluton, Ana! Ĝis revido!

Mi ŝatas kafon, sed mi ne ŝatas teon (I like coffee, but I do not like tea).

Vi laboras means you work, whether you talk to one friend or to ten. The verb stays the same.

Ask Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton? and answer jes, mi parolas Esperanton or mi parolas iom (I speak a little); a language name takes -n as the object: Mi parolas la anglan (I speak English).

Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton? (Do you speak Esperanto?), Ĉu ŝi estas hejme? (Is she at home?)

Ŝati means to like and ami means to love, and both take an object with -n: Mi ŝatas muzikon (I like music), Ni amas Esperanton (we love Esperanto).

An adverb ends in -e and tells how, where or when: bone (well), rapide (quickly), malrapide (slowly), hejme (at home); ŝi parolas rapide (she speaks fast).

Add -in- before the ending to name a female person or animal: frato, fratino (brother, sister); knabo, knabino (boy, girl); kato, katino (cat, female cat).

Add -is for the past, with the same ending for every person: Mi vidis, ŝi laboris, ni manĝis (I saw, she worked, we ate); Hieraŭ ni iris al la lernejo (yesterday we went to school).

Add -os for the future: Mi iros, ŝi venos, ni manĝos (I will go, she will come, we will eat); Morgaŭ mi telefonos al vi (tomorrow I will call you).

An adjective describes a noun and an adverb describes a verb or an adjective: Ana estas bona amikino (Ana is a good friend), Ana kantas bone (Ana sings well), tre bela (very beautiful).

Use da, not de, after a word for an amount when the thing is not a particular one: multe da homoj (many people), glaso da akvo (a glass of water), Kiom da libroj vi havas? (how many books do you have?), tro da laboro (too much work). The noun after da never takes -n.

The days are written without capitals: lundo, mardo, merkredo, ĵaŭdo, vendredo, sabato, dimanĉo; Hodiaŭ estas lundo (today is Monday).

Ask Kiom da jaroj vi havas? (how old are you?) and answer Mi havas tridek jarojn (I am thirty), with the number before jarojn and -n on it. The verb aĝi says the same: Mi aĝas tridek jarojn.

The person who receives something follows al, and the thing given takes -n: Mi donas libron al Ana (I give Ana a book), Ŝi skribas leteron al mi (she writes me a letter).

Month names are proper names, so they take no la (en januaro). PMEG recommends a capital (Januaro), though many writers use a small letter, as the examples here do. Seasons are ordinary words: la printempo, la somero, la aŭtuno, la vintro.

A name keeps its own spelling and takes -n when it is the object: Mi vidas Anan (I see Ana), Ŝi amas Kenjin (she loves Kenji), Ni vizitas Ewan (we visit Ewa). A name that ends in a consonant may stay as it is when the meaning is clear (Ana vidas Pavel), or take -on (Ĉu vi konas Pavelon? Do you know Pavel?).

Say tens and units in that order, with each ten as one word: dek unu (11), dek du (12), dudek (20), dudek tri (23), tridek (30), naŭdek naŭ (99).

An adjective takes -n when its noun does, and -jn in the plural: Mi havas belan domon (I have a beautiful house), Ŝi legas interesajn librojn (she reads interesting books).

Change the ending and the same root gives a new word type: from san- come sano (health), sana (healthy), sane (healthily) and sani (to be healthy).

A question word starts the question, and no ĉu is added: Kie vi loĝas? (where do you live?), Kiam li venos? (when will he come?), Kion ŝi legas? (what is she reading?). A preposition goes in front of the question word: Kun kiu vi parolas? (who are you talking with?), Pri kio vi pensas? (what are you thinking about?).

The table words (korelativoj) are question words, pointing words and their relatives, a table of 45 words built from a beginning and an ending: ki- asks, ti- points, i- means some, ĉi- means every and neni- means no, and endings such as -o (thing), -u (one), -e (place) and -am (time) fit all five, giving kio, tio, io, ĉio, nenio.

Weather verbs have no subject word: Pluvas (it is raining), Neĝas (it is snowing), Estas varme (it is warm), Estas malvarme (it is cold).

Al shows where something goes or who receives it, and it takes no -n: Mi iras al la lernejo (I go to school), Bonvenon al Pollando (welcome to Poland).

Ankaŭ adds a person, thing or action to those already mentioned, and it usually stands right before the word it adds: Ankaŭ mi manĝas (I eat too), Mi ankaŭ manĝas (I also eat), Mi manĝas ankaŭ rizon (I eat rice too).

Antaŭ means in front of or before, post means after, apud means beside and inter means between: antaŭ la domo (in front of the house), apud la rivero (beside the river), inter la arboj (between the trees).

Aŭ joins alternatives: Ĉu vi volas kafon aŭ teon? (do you want coffee or tea?), Mi venos hodiaŭ aŭ morgaŭ (I will come today or tomorrow).

Short words answer or agree: certe (certainly), kompreneble (of course), bone (all right), ne gravas (it does not matter), tute ne (not at all), as in Ĉu vi venos? Certe! (will you come? Certainly!).

De shows who owns something and where it starts: la libro de Ana (Ana's book), Mi venas de la laboro (I come from work), de lundo ĝis vendredo (from Monday to Friday).

El means out of, and it also names material and origin: Li eliras el la domo (he goes out of the house), ringo el oro (a ring of gold), Mi estas el Brazilo (I am from Brazil).

These four show where something is: en la ĉambro (in the room), sur la tablo (on the table), sub la lito (under the bed), super la domo (above the house).

Ask Kioma horo estas? (what time is it?) and answer with an ordinal: Estas la tria (it is three o'clock), Estas la sepa kaj duono (it is half past seven).

Estis means was or were and estos means will be: Hieraŭ estis varme (yesterday it was warm), Morgaŭ ni estos hejme (tomorrow we will be at home).

A wish names what you wish for, so it takes -n: Feliĉan naskiĝtagon! (happy birthday), Bonan vojaĝon! (have a good trip), Feliĉan novjaron! (happy New Year), Gratulon! (congratulations).

These time words need no ending or preposition: Hodiaŭ mi laboras (today I work), hieraŭ mi ripozis (yesterday I rested), morgaŭ mi dormos (tomorrow I will sleep), nun (now).

Kiam asks when and tiam means then: Kiam vi venos? (when will you come?), Tiam mi estis juna (then I was young).

Kie asks where and tie means there, and ĉi tie means here: Kie vi loĝas? (where do you live?), Mi loĝas tie (I live there).

Kiel asks how and tiel means so or like that: Kiel vi fartas? (how are you?), Ŝi kantas tiel bele! (she sings so beautifully!).

Kiu asks who or which one among known people or things, and kio asks about an unnamed thing: Kiu libro? (which book?), Kiu estas Ana? (who is Ana?), Kio estas tio? (what is that?).

Kio asks about a thing and tio points to one: Kio estas tio? (what is that?), Tio estas libro (that is a book), Kion vi vidas? (what do you see?).

Kiom asks how much or how many and tiom means that much: Kiom vi havas? (how much do you have?), Mi havas tiom (I have that much).

Ask Kiom kostas? (how much does it cost?) and answer with the price, which takes -n: Ĝi kostas dek eŭrojn (it costs ten euros), Tio kostas tro multe (that costs too much).

Kiu asks who or which one and tiu means that one; they take -n as objects and -j as plurals: Kiu estas ŝi? (who is she?), Tiu estas mia amiko (that one is my friend), Kiun libron vi legas? (which book are you reading?).

Kun means with and sen means without: kun la amikoj (with the friends), kafo kun lakto (coffee with milk), sen sukero (without sugar), sen mono (without money).

A language name is an adjective with la, and the object takes -n: la angla (English), la franca (French), la hispana (Spanish), la japana (Japanese); Mi lernas la hispanan (I am learning Spanish).

Put mal- before a root for its opposite: granda, malgranda (big, small); bona, malbona (good, bad); amiko, malamiko (friend, enemy); fermi, malfermi (close, open).

Add -e to a part of the day to say when: matene (in the morning), vespere (in the evening), nokte (at night), tage (by day); Mi laboras matene (I work in the morning).

Add -a to a pronoun for its possessive: mia (my), via (your), lia (his), ŝia (her), ĝia (its), nia (our), ilia (their); they agree with the noun: mia libro, miaj libroj, miajn librojn.

These adjectives count loosely and take -j and -n like other adjectives: multaj libroj (many books), malmultaj amikoj (few friends), kelkajn homojn (some people), pluraj lingvoj (several languages).

These words tell how much: ŝi legas multe (she reads a lot), li parolas malmulte (he speaks little), mi parolas iom (I speak a bit), la kafo estas sufiĉe varma (the coffee is warm enough).

Nur means only and stands right before the word it limits: Mi havas nur du katojn (I have only two cats), Nur Ana scias (only Ana knows).

Per names the tool or the way: skribi per plumo (write with a pen), vojaĝi per trajno (travel by train), pagi per karto (pay by card).

Por shows who or what something is for: Mi aĉetas donacon por mia fratino (I buy a gift for my sister), Tiu libro estas por vi (that book is for you).

Povi (can), voli (want) and devi (must) are followed by an infinitive: Mi povas lerni (I can learn), Ni volas iri (we want to go), Vi devas atendi (you must wait).

Pri names the topic: Ni parolas pri la vetero (we talk about the weather), libro pri Esperanto (a book about Esperanto).

Address people with sinjoro (Mr, sir), sinjorino (Ms, madam) and fraŭlino (Miss); to call someone just say the name: Saluton, Ana! and Dankon, sinjoro!

Tre means very and tro means too: tre bela (very beautiful), tro granda (too big), tro multe (too much).

Add -a to a number for first, second, third: unua, dua, tria, deka, as in la unua tago (the first day) and la tria libro (the third book); -e gives unue, due (first, secondly). Bigger ordinals join their parts with a hyphen: dek-unua (eleventh), dudek-tria (twenty-third).

Ĉar starts a clause that gives the reason, and a comma stands before it: Mi restas hejme, ĉar mi estas malsana (I stay at home because I am ill).

Ĉe means at, by or at someone's home: ĉe la pordo (at the door), ĉe la tablo (at the table), ĉe mia amiko (at my friend's place).

-an- names a member of a group or an inhabitant: urbo, urbano (city, city dweller); Brazilo, brazilano (Brazil, Brazilian); klubo, klubano (club, club member).

-ar- names a collection of the same things: arbo, arbaro (tree, forest); vorto, vortaro (word, dictionary); ŝafo, ŝafaro (sheep, flock).

-aĵ- names a thing made of the root or showing its quality: manĝi, manĝaĵo (eat, food); nova, novaĵo (new, a piece of news); dolĉa, dolĉaĵo (sweet, a sweet).

-ec- names a quality or state: bela, beleco (beautiful, beauty); bona, boneco (good, goodness); amiko, amikeco (friend, friendship).

-eg- makes something much bigger or stronger: granda, grandega (big, huge); varma, varmega (warm, very hot); bona, bonega (good, great).

-ej- names a place for something: lerni, lernejo (learn, school); kuiri, kuirejo (cook, kitchen); vendejo (shop), trinkejo (bar).

-et- makes something smaller or milder: domo, dometo (house, small house); rivero, rivereto (river, stream); ridi, rideti (laugh, smile).

-ig- makes a verb meaning make or cause, and the verb takes an object: pura, purigi (clean, make clean); Mi purigas la ĉambron (I clean the room).

-il- names a tool for an action: tranĉi, tranĉilo (cut, knife); skribi, skribilo (write, pen); ŝlosi, ŝlosilo (lock, key).

-ist- names a person by job or practice: instrui, instruisto (teach, teacher); kuracisto (doctor), vendisto (seller), esperantisto (Esperanto speaker).

-iĝ- makes a verb meaning become or get, and the verb takes no object: ruĝa, ruĝiĝi (red, turn red); vekiĝi (wake up), nomiĝi (be called).

Add -u to give a command or make a request, to one person or to many: Venu! (come!), Skribu al mi (write to me), Ne parolu! (do not speak!).

-ul- names a person with a quality: juna, junulo (young, young person); malsana, malsanulo (ill, sick person); riĉa, riĉulo (rich, rich person).

-us says what would happen: Mi irus (I would go), Ŝi dirus tion (she would say that), Ni ŝatus vidi la urbon (we would like to see the city).

Name a clock time with je: je la tria (at three o'clock), written je la 3-a, je la sepa kaj duono (at half past seven).

A comma marks the natural pause before a subordinate clause, such as one with ke, kiu or ĉar, and after one that starts the sentence: Mi scias, ke vi venos (I know that you will come), Kiam mi venos, ni manĝos (when I come, we will eat).

Adverbs compare the same way as adjectives: Li kuras pli rapide ol mi (he runs faster than I do), Ŝi kantas plej bone (she sings best), Mi parolas malpli bone (I speak less well).

Country names are built from a people (Hispanio, hispano; Ĉinio, ĉino; Pollando, poloj) or stand alone with -o, and then a person from there takes -ano (Brazilo, brazilano); the language is the A-word: la hispana.

Say a date with an ordinal and de before the month: la dua de novembro, written la 2-a de novembro. Ask Kiun daton ni havas hodiaŭ? A year follows en: en 2026.

Add -n to a place after a preposition to show movement toward it: Mi estas en la ĉambro (I am in the room) but Mi iras en la ĉambron (I go into the room); La kato saltas sur la tablon (the cat jumps onto the table).

Everyday Esperanto does not need a separate tense for have done: use -is for a finished event and -as with a time word for something still going on, as in Mi jam manĝis (I have already eaten) and Mi lernas Esperanton jam du jarojn (I have been learning Esperanto for two years). The compound forms at Level 4 are rarely needed.

An infinitive can be the subject of a sentence: Lerni estas bone (learning is good), Paroli Esperanton estas plezuro (speaking Esperanto is a pleasure).

Many well-known cities have an Esperanto form with -o: Londono, Parizo, Romo, Berlino, Moskvo; less familiar places keep their own spelling. Esperanto forms take -n as an object: Ni vizitos Parizon (we will visit Paris).

One negative word is enough to deny a clause: Mi vidis neniun (I saw nobody) or Mi ne vidis iun (I did not see anyone). Mi ne vidis neniun means that I did see someone.

Add -e to a preposition to use it alone as an adverb: antaŭe (before, in front), poste (afterwards), kune (together), ekstere (outside); Ni iras kune (we go together).

A noun after a preposition keeps its plain form: kun Ana, sen mono. After a place preposition, -n shows movement toward the place: salti sur la tablon.

A verb that takes an object is transitive and one that does not is intransitive: Mi legas libron (I read a book) but Mi dormas (I sleep).

Begin a message to a friend with Kara Ana (dear Ana) or Saluton, Ana! and end with Ĝis baldaŭ (see you soon), Amike (as a friend) or Kun amikaj salutoj (with friendly greetings).

Ambaŭ means both and tuta means whole: Ambaŭ amikoj venis (both friends came), Ni ambaŭ ŝatas kafon (we both like coffee), la tuta tago (the whole day).

Some verbs take an object where English uses for, to or at: atendi la trajnon (wait for the train), aŭskulti muzikon (listen to music).

Ask politely with bonvolu and an infinitive, or with -us: Bonvolu atendi (please wait), Ĉu vi povus helpi min? (could you help me?), Mi ŝatus kafon (I would like a coffee).

Hundreds are one word and thousands are written separately: cent (100), ducent (200), kvincent (500), mil (1000), du mil (2000), mil naŭcent naŭdek (1990). A million is miliono.

Ask Kie estas la stacidomo? (Where is the station?) and answer Iru rekte (Go straight), Turnu dekstren (Turn right) or Turnu maldekstren (Turn left).

Do gives a conclusion, and it adds emphasis to a question or request: Vi estas laca, do vi devas ripozi (you are tired, so you must rest), Venu do! (come on, then!).

Dum means during, ĝis means until and ekde means since or from: dum la vintro (during the winter), ĝis vendredo (until Friday), ekde lundo (from Monday on).

These adverbs give your view of the whole sentence: eble (maybe), certe (certainly), verŝajne (probably), kompreneble (of course), vere (really); Eble ŝi venos (maybe she will come).

ek- marks the start or the sudden moment of an action: ekiri (set off), ekvidi (catch sight of), ekdormi (fall asleep), ekkanti (start singing).

Eĉ goes before the word it stresses: Eĉ infanoj komprenas (even children understand), Mi eĉ ne scias (I do not even know).

Fojo means a time or occasion, and the number of times takes -n: unu fojon (once), du fojojn (twice), la unuan fojon (the first time), ĉiufoje (every time).

ge- before a word for a person names both sexes together: patro, gepatroj (father, parents); frato, gefratoj (brother, brothers and sisters); sinjoro, gesinjoroj (sir, ladies and gentlemen).

Hejme means at home and hejmen means to home. The other place adverbs work the same way: Kien vi iras? (Where are you going?)

Short words show feeling: ho (oh), ha (ah), ve (alas), hura (hooray), he (hey), fi (ugh), as in Ho ve! (oh dear!); Bonege! (great!) and Brave! (well done!) praise.

The rarer i- words fill the other columns: ia (some kind of), iel (somehow), iom (some, a little), ial (for some reason), ies (someone's).

The i- words mean some: io (something), iu (someone), ie (somewhere), iam (some time); Ĉu vi vidas ion? (do you see something?), Iu venas (someone is coming).

Jam means already, ankoraŭ means still or yet, ne plu means no longer and ankoraŭ ne means not yet: Li jam dormas (he is already asleep), Ŝi ankoraŭ laboras (she is still working), Mi ne plu havas tempon (I no longer have time), Li ankoraŭ ne dormas (he is not asleep yet).

Ke joins a statement to a verb of saying, thinking or feeling, with a comma before it: Mi pensas, ke li venos (I think that he will come), Ŝi diras, ke ŝi estas laca (she says that she is tired).

Kia asks what kind and tia means that kind: Kia estas via domo? (what is your house like?), Mi volas tian libron (I want a book like that).

Kial asks why and tial means for that reason: Kial vi ridas? (why are you laughing?), Mi estas malsana, tial mi restas hejme (I am ill, so I stay at home).

Kiam starts a clause about time: Kiam mi venos, ni manĝos (when I come, we will eat), Mi legas, kiam pluvas (I read when it rains).

Kiel before a noun can mean as, in the role of, or like: Mi laboras kiel instruisto (I work as a teacher), Ŝi kantas kiel birdo (she sings like a bird).

Kies asks whose and ties means that one's: Kies libro estas tio? (whose book is that?), Ana parolas kun Ewa, kaj ties amiko ridas (and Ewa's friend laughs).

Kiu starts a clause that describes a noun, usually with commas around it, and takes -n as an object: La viro, kiu loĝas tie, estas mia amiko (the man who lives there is my friend), La libro, kiun mi legas, estas bona (the book I am reading is good).

Komenci (begin), fini (finish) and daŭrigi (continue) take an infinitive: Mi komencis lerni (I started to learn), Ni finis labori (we finished working), Li daŭrigis paroli (he went on speaking).

Kontraŭ means against, krom means except or besides, malgraŭ means despite and anstataŭ means instead of: Ni promenis malgraŭ la pluvo (we walked despite the rain).

A possessive with la stands for the thing itself: La libro estas la mia (the book is mine), Ĉu tiu estas la via? (is that yours?), la nia (ours).

Laŭ means according to or along: laŭ mi (in my opinion), laŭ la leĝo (according to the law), iri laŭ la rivero (walk along the river).

Malpli means less: La teo estas malpli forta ol la kafo (tea is weaker than coffee), Mi havas malpli da tempo ol vi (I have less time than you).

The rarer neni- words fill the other columns: nenia (no kind of), neniel (in no way), neniom (none), nenial (not for any reason), nenies (nobody's), as in Mi havas nenian dubon (I have no doubt).

The neni- words mean no: nenio (nothing), neniu (nobody), nenie (nowhere), neniam (never); Neniu venis (nobody came), Mi neniam fumas (I never smoke).

Ni with -u suggests doing something together: Ni iru! (let us go), Ni manĝu (let us eat).

These adverbs tell how often: ofte (often), malofte (rarely), kelkfoje (sometimes), ĉiam (always), neniam (never); Mi ofte legas (I often read), Ŝi malofte vizitas (she rarely visits).

Oni means one, people or you in general, with the verb in the third person: Oni parolas Esperanton en multaj landoj (people speak Esperanto in many countries), Kiel oni diras tion? (how does one say that?).

Plej makes the highest degree, and el names the group: Ŝi estas la plej alta el ni (she is the tallest of us), la plej bela urbo en Eŭropo (the most beautiful city in Europe).

Pli makes a comparison and ol means than: Ana estas pli alta ol Kenji (Ana is taller than Kenji), La trajno estas pli rapida ol la buso (The train is faster than the bus).

Por plus an infinitive gives a purpose: Mi lernas Esperanton por paroli kun amikoj (I learn Esperanto to talk with friends), Ŝi iras al la vendejo por aĉeti panon (she goes to the shop to buy bread).

Pro (because of) is followed by a noun and ĉar (because) by a whole clause: pro la pluvo (because of the rain), ĉar pluvas (because it is raining). Por usually gives the aim and pro gives the cause.

Rajti (be allowed), bezoni (need) and scipovi (know how to) work like povi: Ĉu mi rajtas eniri? (may I come in?), Mi bezonas dormi (I need to sleep), Ŝi scipovas kanti (she can sing).

re- means again or back: iri, reiri (go, go back); veni, reveni (come, come back); legi, relegi (read, read again).

Sama means same and alia means other: la sama libro (the same book), Mi havas la saman libron kiel vi (I have the same book as you), alia tago (another day), la aliaj (the others).

Se starts a condition, and the verb after it is usually in the present or the future: Se pluvas, mi restas hejme (if it rains, I stay at home), Se vi venos, ni ludos (if you come, we will play).

Si and sin point back to the subject of the same clause and are never the subject themselves: Ŝi lavas sin (she washes herself), Ili helpas sin (they help themselves), but Ŝi vidas ŝin means she sees another woman.

Sia means his own, her own or their own, when the owner is the subject: Li amas sian patrinon (he loves his own mother), Ili vendas siajn domojn (they sell their houses), while lian patrinon is someone else's mother.

Tamen shows a contrast with what came before: Estas malvarme, tamen ni iras eksteren (it is cold, yet we go outside), Li estis malsana, tamen li laboris (he was ill, but he worked).

Tiel ... kiel compares things that are equal: Ana estas tiel alta kiel Kenji (Ana is as tall as Kenji), Li parolas tiel rapide kiel mi (he speaks as fast as I do).

These show movement and position: tra la parko (through the park), trans la rivero (across the river), preter la domo (past the house), ĉirkaŭ la domo (around the house), ekster la urbo (outside the city).

The rarer ĉi- words fill the other columns: ĉia (every kind of), ĉiel (in every way), ĉiom (the whole amount), ĉial (for every reason), ĉies (everyone's).

The ĉi- words mean every or all: ĉio (everything), ĉiu (everyone, each), ĉie (everywhere), ĉiam (always); Mi scias ĉion (I know everything).

Join ĉiu with a time word and add -e to say how often something happens: ĉiutage (every day), ĉiumatene (every morning), ĉiusemajne (every week), ĉiujare (every year); Ni lernas ĉiutage (we study every day).

Add ĉu ne to a statement to ask for agreement: Estas bela tago, ĉu ne? (it is a nice day, isn't it?), Vi parolas Esperanton, ĉu ne? (you speak Esperanto, don't you?).

Ĝi points back to one named thing and tio to an idea or a whole situation: Mi havas aŭton. Ĝi estas nova. (I have a car. It is new.), Li venis. Tio estas bona. (he came; that is good).

Ĵus means just now and goes with the past, and baldaŭ means soon and usually looks ahead: Mi ĵus venis (I have just arrived), Ni baldaŭ manĝos (we will eat soon); tuj means at once.

Ŝajni (seem), fariĝi (become) and resti (stay) take a noun or an adjective with no -n: Ŝi ŝajnas laca (she seems tired), Li fariĝis kuracisto (he has become a doctor), Ni restas amikoj (we stay friends).

-anta describes someone doing the action as it happens: la dormanta kato (the sleeping cat), la parolanta viro (the man who is speaking), kantanta birdo (a singing bird).

-ata describes something that is being acted on: la legata libro (the book being read), la farata laboro (the work being done), amata amiko (a beloved friend).

-em- describes someone who tends to do something: parolema (talkative), scivolema (curious), laborema (hard-working).

-er- names one small piece of a whole: sablo, sablero (sand, grain of sand); fajro, fajrero (fire, spark); mono, monero (money, coin); neĝo, neĝero (snow, snowflake).

-estr- names the person in charge: urbo, urbestro (city, mayor); lernejo, lernejestro (school, head teacher); ŝipo, ŝipestro (ship, captain).

-id- names the young or the descendant: kato, katido (cat, kitten); ŝafo, ŝafido (sheep, lamb); kokido (chick); reĝo, reĝido (king, prince).

The same root can take both: -ig- makes something happen to another thing and -iĝ- makes it happen by itself, as in Ewa sidigas la infanon (Ewa sits the child down) and La infano sidiĝas (the child sits down).

-inta describes someone who has already done the action: la veninta gasto (the guest who has arrived), la forgesinta knabo (the boy who has forgotten), la foririnta amiko (the friend who has left).

-ita describes something an action has been done to, with the result in place: la skribita letero (the written letter), fermita pordo (a closed door), rompita vitro (broken glass).

-onta describes something or someone about to do the action: la venonta semajno (next week, the coming week), la venonta jaro (next year), la irontaj gastoj (the guests who are about to go).

-ota describes something an action will be done to: la farota laboro (the work to be done), la skribota letero (the letter that will be written).

-uj- names a container: mono, monujo (money, purse); sukero, sukerujo (sugar, sugar bowl); inko, inkujo (ink, inkwell). It also appears in country names such as Francujo, which many writers replace with -io (Francio).

Many adjectives take a fixed preposition: plena de akvo (full of water), kontenta pri la rezulto (satisfied with the result), preta por la vojaĝo (ready for the trip), certa pri tio (sure of that).

Direct speech repeats the words, and reported speech uses ke and keeps the tense of the original words: Ana diras: «Mi venos» and Ana diras, ke ŝi venos.

Two roots can join into one word, and the last root names what it is: lerni plus libro gives lernolibro (textbook), tago plus manĝo gives tagmanĝo (lunch).

Lengths, weights and prices take -n: La tablo estas du metrojn longa (the table is two meters long), La sako pezas dek kilogramojn (the bag weighs ten kilograms).

Estas plus -ata turns the object into the subject: La domo estas konstruata (the house is being built), La letero estis skribata (the letter was being written).

Estas plus -ita shows a finished action and its result: La pordo estas fermita (the door is closed), La laboro estos finita (the work will be finished).

A preposition can come before kiu to say how the noun relates to the clause: La amiko, kun kiu mi parolis, loĝas en Japanio (the friend I spoke with lives in Japan).

A question inside a sentence keeps its question word, and ĉu means whether: Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos (I do not know whether he will come), Diru al mi, kiu li estas (tell me who he is).

A new word becomes clear when you know its parts: malsanulejo is mal- (opposite) + san- (health) + -ul- (person) + -ej- (place) + -o, a place for people who are not healthy, a hospital.

Each root has a natural meaning that decides what its endings say: dorm- is an action (dormi, to sleep), tabl- is a thing (tablo), bel- is a quality (bela); an ending of another type makes a related word, such as akvi (to water, to give water to).

A ke clause keeps the tense the speaker thought of: Kenji diris, ke li venos (Kenji said he would come), Mi pensis, ke Ana estas malsana (I thought Ana was ill).

Esperanto has six participles, built on a verb root with -ant-, -int-, -ont-, -at-, -it- or -ot-: the active -ant- (in progress), -int- (finished) and -ont- (about to) name the doer, and the passive -at-, -it- and -ot- name the receiver in the same three stages. Each takes -a as an adjective: leganta, leginta, legonta, legata, legita, legota.

A time word without a preposition takes -n when it tells when, how long or how often: Wei alvenos lundon (Wei will arrive on Monday), Mi laboris tri horojn (I worked for three hours).

A name that tells what a noun is called follows it with no -n: Mi vizitis la urbon Parizo (I visited the city Paris), Ni konas la knabon Kenji (we know the boy Kenji). A phrase set off by commas copies the noun's endings, including -n: Hiro renkontis Anan, mian amikinon.

Some verbs go with a preposition: pensi pri (think about), interesiĝi pri (be interested in), danki pro (thank for), as in Mi dankas vin pro la helpo (I thank you for the help).

Ajn after a table word means any or ever: iu ajn (anyone), kie ajn (wherever), kiam ajn (whenever), Venu kiam ajn (come whenever you like).

These can take an infinitive: Anstataŭ preni la buson, ni iris piede (instead of taking the bus, we walked), Antaŭ ol eniri la ĉambron, Lucia frapis (before entering the room, Lucia knocked).

Antaŭ ol (before) and post kiam (after) start time clauses: Antaŭ ol ni ekiris, Ana ŝlosis la pordon (before we set out, Ana locked the door).

Paired conjunctions link two choices: Hiro trinkas aŭ teon aŭ kafon (Hiro drinks either tea or coffee), Nek Ana nek Kenji scias la respondon (neither Ana nor Kenji knows the answer), Kaj Ewa kaj Wei venis (both Ewa and Wei came).

bo- names a relative by marriage: patro, bopatro (father, father-in-law); frato, bofrato (brother, brother-in-law); filino, bofilino (daughter, daughter-in-law).

De introduces the doer in a passive sentence: Ĉi tiu ponto estis konstruita de laboristoj (this bridge was built by workers).

dis- means apart or in all directions: doni, disdoni (give, hand out); ŝiri, disŝiri (tear, tear apart).

eks- means former and goes before a word for a person or role: edzo, eksedzo (husband, ex-husband).

El names the whole group or amount that a part comes from: unu el la knaboj (one of the boys), kelkaj el ni (some of us), la plej alta el ĉiuj (the tallest of all).

Estas plus -anta stresses an action in progress: Mi estas leganta (I am reading), Ŝi estis dormanta (she was sleeping). It is rarely needed, because Mi legas says the same; use it to stress that one action goes on while another happens.

Estas plus -inta looks back at a finished action: Ni estos finintaj la laboron (we will have finished the work).

Estas plus -onta says an action is about to happen: Mi estas forironta (I am about to leave), Ni estis veturontaj (we were about to travel).

Ja stresses that something is true or obvious: Mi ja scias (I do know), Ĝi ja estas bela (it really is beautiful).

Je shows clock times and a few set uses: je la tria (at three o'clock), kapti je la brako (to grab by the arm), riĉa je arbaroj (rich in forests).

Ju pli in the first part and des pli in the second part show two things growing together: Ju pli vi legas, des pli vi scias (the more you read, the more you know).

Kia and kiel start an exclamation: Kia bela tago! (what a beautiful day!), Kiel bele! (how lovely!), Kian bonan libron vi havas! (what a good book you have!).

Kie, kiam and kiel can follow a noun to link a clause: la domo, kie mi loĝas (the house where I live), la tago, kiam ni venis (the day we came). Kial is rare.

Kies means whose in a clause: La viro, kies filo estas kuracisto, loĝas apud ni (the man whose son is a doctor lives near us).

Kio starts a clause after tio, ĉio or a whole idea, and takes -n when it is the object: Mi ne komprenas, kion vi diras (I do not understand what you say), Ĉio, kion mi scias, venas de libroj (everything I know comes from books).

Kvankam starts a clause that is true but not enough to stop the main idea: Kvankam pluvas, ni promenas en la parko (although it is raining, we walk in the park).

When it is clear whose it is, Esperanto often uses la instead of a possessive, especially for body parts, clothes and relatives: Li levis la kapon (he raised his head), Ŝi lavis al si la manojn (she washed her hands).

Give an opinion with laŭ mi (in my opinion), Mi opinias, ke (I think that), Mi kredas, ke (I believe that) or Mi ne certas, ĉu (I am not sure whether).

-u with li, ŝi or ili gives a wish or an order about a third person: Li venu! (let him come), Ili atendu ĉi tie (let them wait here), Vivu Esperanto! (long live Esperanto).

Mem stresses who does the action: Mi faris ĝin mem (I did it myself), Ŝi mem diris tion (she herself said that), la domo mem (the house itself).

After verbs of seeing, hearing and letting, the object can be followed by an infinitive: Mi vidas Anan kuri (I see Ana running), Mia patrino lasis min iri (my mother let me go).

mis- means wrongly or badly: uzi, misuzi (use, misuse); paroli, misparoli (speak, misspeak); the prefix keeps the meaning of the root and adds the idea of a mistake.

Multe pli means much more, iom pli means a bit more, and ankoraŭ pli means even more: multe pli bona (much better), iom pli granda (a bit bigger).

Ne nur ... sed ankaŭ adds a second thing, and ĉu ... ĉu says it does not matter which: Ne nur Ana, sed ankaŭ Kenji venis (not only Ana but also Kenji came), Ĉu pluvos, ĉu ne, ni iros (rain or no rain, we will go).

ne- negates a word and sen- means without: konata, nekonata (known, unknown); ebla, neebla (possible, impossible); mono, senmona (money, penniless); fina, senfina (final, endless).

Plaĉi turns liking around: the thing that pleases is the subject, and the person follows al: La libro plaĉas al mi (I like the book), Plaĉas al ŝi kanti (she likes to sing).

Pli kaj pli means more and more: La tagoj fariĝas pli kaj pli longaj (the days are getting longer and longer).

Po means each or at the rate of: Ĉiu gasto trinkis po glaso da vino (each guest drank a glass of wine).

Por ke starts a clause of purpose with -u: Mi parolas malrapide, por ke vi komprenu (I speak slowly so that you understand).

For an unreal condition use -us in both parts: Se mi havus pli da tempo, mi studus ĉiutage (if I had more time, I would study every day).

Sen (without) and krom (except, besides) can come before an infinitive: Ana foriris sen diri adiaŭ (Ana left without saying goodbye), Mi ne havas alian elekton krom atendi (I have no other choice but to wait).

Tiel or tia with ke gives a result: Hiro parolis tiel rapide, ke mi ne komprenis lin (Hiro spoke so fast that I did not understand him), Estis tia bruo, ke neniu povis dormi (there was such noise that nobody could sleep).

A ti- word often points ahead to the ki- word that answers it: Tiu, kiu venos unue, ricevos donacon (whoever comes first will get a gift), Ni iros tien, kie estas varme (we will go where it is warm).

Tro ... por means too ... to, and sufiĉe ... por means ... enough to: La supo estas tro varma por manĝi (the soup is too hot to eat), Ŝi estas sufiĉe forta por porti la valizon (she is strong enough to carry the suitcase).

Unu la alian means each other: Ni helpas unu la alian (we help each other), Ili parolas unu kun la alia (they talk with each other).

Unu ... alia sets one person or thing against another, and unuj ... aliaj sets one group against another: Unu babilis, alia kantis (one chatted, another sang), Unuj ŝatas kafon, aliaj ŝatas teon (some like coffee, others like tea).

After verbs of wanting, asking or ordering, the ke clause takes -u: Mi volas, ke vi venu (I want you to come), Ana petas, ke ni atendu (Ana asks us to wait).

Ĉi marks something near the speaker: ĉi tie (here), ĉi tiu libro or tiu ĉi libro (this book), tio ĉi (this), ĉi-foje (this time).

Ĝis, dum and tuj kiam also start clauses: Ni atendos, ĝis la trajno alvenos (we will wait until the train arrives), Dum Ana kuiras, Kenji legas (while Ana cooks, Kenji reads).

-ad- marks an action that lasts or repeats: paroli, paroladi (speak, keep talking); labori, laborado (work, the activity of working); pensi, pensado (think, thinking).

-ante, -inte and -onte name another action of the subject, which happens during the main action, is already done before it, or is about to happen: Ridante, Mei salutis la gastojn (laughing, Mei greeted the guests), Veninte hejmen, Hiro dormis (having come home, Hiro slept), Forironte, Maria adiaŭis (about to leave, Maria said goodbye).

-anto, -into and -onto name the person who does, has done or will do the action: studanto (a student, someone studying), parolanto (a speaker), leginto (someone who has read), skribonto (someone who will write). For the future as a time, the usual word is la estonteco, because by its form la estonto names a person who will be.

-ate, -ite and -ote do the same for the receiver of an action: Ili laboris rigardate de la mastro (they worked while the boss was watching them), Li venis al mi tute ne atendite (he came to me quite unexpectedly), Kaptote li forkuris (about to be caught, he ran away).

-ato, -ito and -oto name the person an action is done to: la elektito (the chosen one), la akuzato (the person being accused), la juĝoto (the person who is going to be judged).

-aĉ- means bad or worthless: domo, domaĉo (house, hovel); vetero, veteraĉo (weather, foul weather).

-ebl- means can be done: legi, legebla (read, readable); manĝi, manĝebla (eat, edible); vidi, videbla (see, visible).

-end- means must be done: fari, farenda (do, to be done); pagi, pagenda (pay, due); traduki, tradukenda (translate, to be translated).

-ind- means worthy of: vidi, vidinda (see, worth seeing); legi, leginda (read, worth reading); laŭdi, laŭdinda (praise, praiseworthy).

-ing- names a holder made for one thing: kandelo, kandelingo (candle, candlestick); plumo, plumingo (pen, pen holder); ovo, ovingo (egg, egg cup).

-ism- names a doctrine, movement or system: kristanismo (Christianity), idealismo (idealism), esperantismo (the Esperanto movement).

-obl- makes multiples: duobla (double), triobla (triple), duoble (twice as much), kvarobla (fourfold).

-on- makes fractions: duono (a half), triono (a third), kvarono (a quarter), dekono (a tenth); Mi manĝis trionon de la kuko (I ate a third of the cake).

-op- makes group numbers: duope (in twos), triope (in threes), kvarope (in fours); Ni iris triope (the three of us went together).

-um- has no fixed meaning, so each word with it is learned on its own: plena, plenumi (full, carry out); kolo, kolumo (neck, collar); aero, aerumi (air, ventilate).

-ĉj- makes a pet name for a male and -nj- for a female, after a shortened word: patro, paĉjo (father, dad); patrino, panjo (mother, mum); onklo, oĉjo (uncle); onklino, onjo (aunt).

A formal letter opens with Estimata sinjoro or Estimata sinjorino (dear sir, dear madam), states the matter plainly and ends with Kun respekto or Kun koraj salutoj (with respect, with warm greetings).

Esperanto marks formality with word choice, not with a polite you: friends write Saluton! and Kiel vi fartas?, while a formal text uses longer sentences, participles and Estimataj gesinjoroj.

A word that names or describes the object stays plain when it says what the object becomes or is called: Ili nomis la katon Luisa (they named the cat Luisa), Ni farbis la muron blanka (we painted the wall white), Mi trovas ĝin interesa (I find it interesting). With -n it describes the object as it already was: Ni farbis la blankan muron (we painted the wall that was white).

A speech opens with Estimataj gesinjoroj (ladies and gentlemen) or Karaj geamikoj (dear friends) and thanks the hosts: Mi dankas vin pro la invito (I thank you for the invitation).

A participle with its objects can replace a clause with kiu: la viro leganta gazeton (the man reading a newspaper) means la viro, kiu legas gazeton, and la letero skribita de Ana (the letter written by Ana) means la letero, kiu estas skribita de Ana.

News in Monato and Libera Folio is compact: headlines leave out small words, and sentences use participles and noun phrases, as in Prezidanto vizitos Brazilon (the president will visit Brazil).

Scientific words use international roots with Esperanto endings: fiziko (physics), kemio (chemistry), biologio (biology), medicino (medicine), matematiko (mathematics).

Name the person with tiu, la persono, li aŭ ŝi or a plural: Se iu bezonas helpon, li aŭ ŝi povas telefoni (if someone needs help, he or she can call), Ĉiu havas sian libron (everyone has their own book).

These words point at one part of a sentence: almenaŭ (at least), precipe (especially), ĉefe (mainly), ĝuste (exactly), as in Mi ŝatas legi, precipe romanojn (I like reading, especially novels).

A number becomes a noun with -o and then takes da: centoj da homoj (hundreds of people), dekoj da libroj (tens of books), milionoj da infanoj (millions of children); dekduo is a dozen.

Essays and articles link their parts with unue (firstly), due (secondly), cetere (besides), sekve (consequently), entute (altogether) and fine (finally), as in Sekve ni devas decidi (so we must decide).

fi- marks something shameful or morally bad: fiulo (scoundrel), fivorto (swear word); on its own fi! is a cry of disgust.

Ho, se starts a wish: Ho, se mi estus pli juna! (oh, if only I were younger), Se nur vi scius! (if only you knew).

Abbreviations of phrases usually take a full stop after each letter: k.t.p. (kaj tiel plu, and so on), t.e. (tio estas, that is) and k.a. (kaj aliaj, and others), while ekz. (ekzemple, for example) is one shortened word with one stop; names of groups are capitals without full stops, as in UEA and UK.

Learn these as wholes: kiel eble plej frue (as early as possible), ĉiukaze (in any case), unuavide (at first sight), pli-malpli (more or less), sendube (without doubt).

Kvazaŭ means as if or as though: Ŝi parolas, kvazaŭ ŝi estus reĝino (she talks as if she were a queen), Li aspektas kvazaŭ malsana (he looks as if he were ill).

A ke clause is the subject of necesas and eblas: Necesas, ke vi venu (it is necessary that you come), Eblas, ke li venos (it is possible that he will come).

pra- means ancient or one generation further back: avo, praavo (grandfather, great-grandfather); pratempo (prehistoric time); praulo (ancestor).

For an unreal past use estus plus -inta: Se mi estus sciinta, mi estus veninta (if I had known, I would have come), Ŝi estus helpinta vin (she would have helped you).

In a phrase with an object and an infinitive, si refers to the doer of the infinitive: Mi vidis lin lavi sin (I saw him wash himself), Ŝi aŭdis lin paroli pri si (she heard him talk about himself), while Ŝi aŭdis lin paroli pri ŝi means he talked about her.

Tio, ke turns a clause into a noun phrase, for example after a preposition: Mi ĝojas pro tio, ke vi venis (I am glad that you came), Tio, ke li ne venis, ne gravas (the fact that he did not come does not matter).

Learn these as wholes: ĝis nun (until now), de nun (from now on), antaŭ nelonge (not long ago), de tempo al tempo (from time to time), unu post la alia (one after another).

Some writers fold estus -inta into one verb: sciintus for estus sciinta and legatas for estas legata, so Se mi sciintus tion, mi agintus alie means Se mi estus sciinta tion, mi estus aginta alie (if I had known that, I would have acted differently). Zamenhof never used these forms, and the -intus ones are the most popular.

The speaker community has its own words: samideano (fellow Esperantist), krokodili (to speak your own language at an Esperanto event), Pasporta Servo (the host network) and Zamenhof-tago, also written Zamenhofa Tago (Zamenhof Day, 15 December, his birthday).

Stories mark speech with quotation marks or a dash, and the speech verb often follows the quote: «Mi venos,» diris Ana (“I will come,” said Ana).

Books and forums about the language use Esperanto's own grammar words: substantivo (noun), adjektivo (adjective), verbo (verb), adverbo (adverb), akuzativo (accusative), finaĵo (ending), prefikso (prefix), sufikso (suffix), radiko (root) and tabelvorto (table word).

Literary Esperanto often builds long sentences with participle adverbs and ke clauses, and draws on originala literaturo (original literature) as well as traduko (translations).

New words enter the language through use, and the Akademio de Esperanto and dictionaries such as the PIV record the ones that last; a word nobody can make sense of is called a volapukaĵo.

Official texts use fixed formulas: supre (above), sube (below), la subskribinto (the undersigned), laŭ la artikolo (according to the article), ĉiu rajtas (everyone has the right).

Texts from the first decades of Esperanto differ from modern ones in a few details, such as number nouns used without da and ĝi as an empty subject; ci and -ujo only look old, because ci was practically never used and Francujo is as correct as Francio.

Esperanto has its own proverb collection, Zamenhof's Proverbaro Esperanta, and many translated sayings; Kiu devas, tiu povas (whoever must, can) is built on the pair kiu and tiu.

Reforms have been proposed almost from the start: Ido split off in 1907, and some writers use ri for a person of any gender or -iĉ- as a male marker; they are not part of the standard, so a standard text says li aŭ ŝi instead.

Because stress falls on the second-to-last vowel, rhyme runs from that vowel to the end of the word, so sento rhymes with vento, and most verse follows a steady pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.

The Fundamento de Esperanto of 1905 fixes the basic grammar and word list, the Akademio de Esperanto guides new usage, and the Plena Ilustrita Vortaro (PIV) records standard usage.

Moving a word to the front or the end emphasizes it: La libron mi ne legis (the book I did not read), Kantas ŝi bele (she does sing beautifully), and -n keeps the meaning clear.

Because -n marks the object, poets reorder freely: the verb can come before its subject, as in En la mondon venis nova sento (a new feeling came into the world), the opening of Zamenhof's poem La Espero.

The regular parts of words make wordplay easy: one root with different endings or affixes gives a pun, and Esperanto has its own vortludo (wordplay) traditions.

Poets may drop the final -o of a noun and mark it with an apostrophe, as in ĉiel' for ĉielo, and the article la becomes l' after a preposition that ends in a vowel, as in de l' homaro (of humankind); ordinary prose almost never does this.