Afrikaans Grammar List

The article 'n means a or an before any singular noun and sounds like a short, weak uh: 'n hond, 'n appel. It is never capitalized; at the start of a sentence the next word gets the capital: 'n Man staan buite.

Many Afrikaans nouns, especially short ones, form the plural by adding -e: boek → boeke, hond → honde, huis → huise. The word die stays the same, and 'n has no plural.

Nouns that end in an unstressed -el, -er, -em, -en or -ie add -s: tafel → tafels, kamer → kamers, meisie → meisies. Some other nouns, such as seun, oom and broer, also take -s.

An adjective comes before the noun it describes: 'n groot huis, die rooi kar. After is it stands on its own in its basic form: Die huis is groot.

An adverb of manner is the plain adjective with no ending like English -ly: Hy hardloop vinnig (he runs fast), Sy sing mooi (she sings beautifully).

A plain statement is subject, verb, then the rest: Ek drink koffie. The first verb stays in second place in a statement, and any other verbs go to the very end: Ek wil koffie drink.

A command uses the plain verb at the start: Kom hier! Sit! Wag, asseblief. The same form is used for one person or more. The verb to be becomes wees: Wees stil!

The days are Maandag, Dinsdag, Woensdag, Donderdag, Vrydag, Saterdag and Sondag. They are written with a capital letter and often follow op: op Vrydag.

A long vowel is written double in a closed syllable and single in an open one: boom → bome, skool → skole. A short stressed vowel keeps its sound by doubling the next consonant: kat → katte, sak → sakke.

The modal and the verb at the end form a frame around the rest of the clause: Ons moet môre vroeg werk.

Afrikaans nouns have no grammatical gender: every noun takes die and 'n, and adjectives never change for gender. Hy and sy are used for people and animals by their sex; for things dit is standard, although hy is common in speech.

Put se between the owner and the thing owned: my ma se huis, die kind se speelgoed.

Put toe after a place to say you are going there: Ek gaan huis toe, Ons ry Kaapstad toe. It is written as a separate word, and with die before the noun you add na: na die winkel toe.

The numbers one to twenty are een, twee, drie, vier, vyf, ses, sewe, agt, nege, tien, elf, twaalf, dertien, veertien, vyftien, sestien, sewentien, agttien, negentien and twintig.

From 21 the ones come first, joined to the tens by en: een-en-twintig, vyf-en-dertig. The tens are twintig, dertig, veertig, vyftig, sestig, sewentig, tagtig and negentig, followed by honderd and duisend.

The present tense uses the plain verb for everyone: ek werk, jy werk, hulle werk. There are no personal endings.

A question with a word like waar or wat has the order: question word, verb, subject, rest. Other verbs stay at the end.

Afrikaans is written with the same 26 letters as English. Some vowels carry marks, such as ê, ë and ô, and c, q, x and z appear mostly in names and loanwords.

The two dots of the deelteken show that a vowel starts a new syllable instead of joining the vowel before it: reën (rain), voël (bird), geëet (eaten), oë (eyes), hoë (high).

The circumflex, called the kappie, marks a long, drawn-out vowel in words such as sê (say), môre (tomorrow) and wêreld (world). It is part of the spelling and cannot be left out.

The letter g is usually a rough sound made at the back of the throat, like ch in Scottish loch: goed, dag, groot. The pair ng is one nasal sound, as in English sing.

To ask a yes/no question, start with the verb and put the subject right after it: Praat jy Afrikaans?

Baie means very before an adjective (baie mooi), many or much before a noun (baie mense, baie water) and a lot after a verb (Sy lees baie). It never changes form.

By means at or near a place, or at a person's home: by die huis, by die werk, Ek bly by my ouma. It often does not match English by.

Daar is means there is or there are. The verb is stays the same for one thing or many.

Die means the before every noun, singular or plural: die man, die vrou, die kind, die kinders. There is only one form to learn.

Use dit as an empty it for weather, time and how things are. Afrikaans needs a subject in these sentences, just as English does.

Ek, jy, hy, sy and dit mean I, you, he, she and it when they are the subject of the sentence.

En joins words, phrases and sentences. The sentence after en keeps its normal word order.

Graag means gladly. Put it after the verb to say you enjoy an activity, or use it with wil for polite wishes.

To need something, say het, then the thing, then nodig. Nodig means necessary.

Say ek het and ons het for have. After wil, sal, moet or kan, use hê at the end: Ek wil 'n hond hê.

Hier means here and daar means there: Kom hier! Die boek lê daar. Hierso and daarso are common spoken forms with the same meaning.

Use hierdie for something near you and daardie for something farther away. In speech daardie is often shortened to daai.

Hoe gaan dit? asks how someone is, and Dit gaan goed, dankie answers it. Add met + person to ask about someone: Hoe gaan dit met jou? Hoe gaan dit met u?

Hoe means how and hoeveel means how much or how many. Hoeveel is written as one word.

Hoekom and waarom both ask why. They start the question, and the verb follows directly.

Use hou van for liking people, things and activities. For don't like, put nie after hou and another nie at the end.

Ie sounds like ee in see and oe like oo in food, even though each uses two letters. Ee, oo and eu glide slightly, ui and ou are rounded sounds with no exact English match, and a short i sounds like the a in about.

In means in or inside. Use it for inside places and things, for towns and countries, and for longer stretches of time: in die huis, in Kaapstad, in die winter.

Say ek is, jy is, hulle is in the present. After kan, moet, sal or wil, and in commands like Wees stil!, use wees.

Kan means can or be able to, with the other verb at the end: Ek kan swem, Kan jy my help? It can also mean something is possible: Dit kan reën.

Maar means but. It links two contrasting ideas, and the clause after it keeps normal main-clause word order: Die huis is klein, maar dit is mooi.

Mag means may or be allowed to. Mag nie means may not, with a second nie at the end.

Met means with. Use it for company, for tools, and for transport where English says by: met my vriend, met 'n mes, met die bus.

Moet means must or have to: Ek moet werk, Jy moet dit lees. With nie ... nie it means must not: Jy moet nie so hard ry nie.

After a verb or a preposition, ek, jy, hy and sy change to my (me), jou (you), hom (him) and haar (her).

Put my, jou, sy or haar in front of a noun to show whose it is. Before a noun, sy means his or its.

Na means to or toward: Ek gaan na die winkel. It also follows verbs like luister and kyk: Sy luister na musiek. For after in time, write ná.

Afrikaans marks a negative sentence twice: nie after the verb and nie again at the end. Ek weet nie needs only one.

Of means or and keeps normal word order: Koffie of tee? Kom jy vandag of môre?

Ons, julle and hulle mean we, you (plural) and they, and the same words also mean us, you and them.

The plural pronouns go straight before a noun to mean our, your and their: ons skool, julle huis, hulle kinders.

Op means on, as in op die tafel. It also means at for places like school, the farm and the station, and on for days and dates: op skool, op Maandag.

Sal is the Afrikaans will. It stays in second place and sends the other verb to the end of the clause.

Use u to speak politely to strangers, older people and customers. U also means you as an object and your before a noun.

Uit means out of or from inside: Sy kom uit die huis. It also gives origin: Hy kom uit Namibië.

In most words v sounds like English f and w sounds like English v: vis (fish), vader (father), wat (what), water. After a consonant, as in kwaad and twee, w is closer to English w.

Van means of or from: die dak van die huis, 'n vriend van my, Ek kom van Pretoria. For people's things, Afrikaans usually uses se instead: my ma se kar.

Vir means for: Die blomme is vir jou, Dankie vir die koffie. It also marks the person you say or give something to: Sê vir hom.

Waar starts the question, and vandaan (from) or heen (to) comes at the end: Waar kom jy vandaan? Waar gaan jy heen?

Waar means where and wanneer means when. Both start the question, and the verb follows directly.

Want means because. It gives a reason in a second main clause, so the word order does not change: Ek bly tuis, want ek is siek.

Wat means what and wie means who. Each word has one form, whether it is the subject or the object.

Watter asks which one out of several. It stands before a noun and never changes form.

Wil plus a verb at the end says what someone wants to do. It never means will; for the future, use sal.

Wil plus a thing plus hê says what you want to have. Wil needs a verb at the end, and hê fills that place.

Y and ei spell the same sound. It starts with a short uh and glides toward ee, close to the a in English day: my, wyn, klein, eier. Which spelling a word uses is learned word by word.

Write 's after a final i, o, u or stressed a (foto's, ma's), but plain -s after an unstressed a (oumas, kameras) and after ie (meisies).

Kind, ei, lam and kalf take -ers in the plural: kinders, eiers, lammers, kalwers.

Add -self to an object pronoun for myself, yourself and so on: myself, jouself, homself, haarself, onsself, julleself, hulleself. It is used for emphasis and after prepositions: Hy praat met homself. Self alone means personally: Ek het dit self gedoen.

To say a cup of or a glass of, put the measure word directly before the noun: 'n koppie koffie, 'n glas water. Afrikaans does not add van here.

Longer adjectives usually add -e before a noun, many short ones do not, and after is there is no -e: 'n pragtige dag, 'n groot huis, Die dag is pragtig.

Add -er to compare two things: groot → groter, klein → kleiner, mooi → mooier, oud → ouer. Adjectives ending in r add -der: duur → duurder, ver → verder. Than is as: Hy is ouer as ek.

After f, g (but not ng), k, p or s the diminutive ending is -ie: boekie, huisie, koppie, vissie, bruggie.

After d or t the diminutive ending is -jie, pronounced much like -kie: handjie, katjie, hoedjie, bedjie.

Use -tjie to say little after a vowel or diphthong (koei → koeitjie) and after l, n or r when a long vowel, a diphthong or an unstressed syllable comes before it: stoel → stoeltjie, seun → seuntjie, tafel → tafeltjie. It sounds much like -kie.

Goed, baie, min, graag and naby do not add -er and -ste. Their compared forms are beter and beste, meer and meeste, minder and minste, liewer and liefste, and nader and naaste.

A few everyday nouns have irregular plurals, such as skip → skepe, stad → stede, pad → paaie, hemp → hemde and nag → nagte.

Some measure words stay singular after a number: twee jaar, drie uur, tien rand, vyf kilogram, twee keer. Other nouns take the plural: twee boeke, drie dae, vyf minute.

The months are Januarie to Desember, always with a capital letter. Say in Mei for a month and op 5 Mei for a date, with the day first.

When two nouns name one idea, Afrikaans writes them as one word: skoolkind (schoolchild), kombuistafel (kitchen table). The last part tells you what the thing is, and plural endings go on that last part.

Ordinals say first, second, third and so on. Most end in -de (tweede, vierde, tiende), but agtste, twintigste, honderdste and higher numbers end in -ste.

These verbs already begin with a weak, unstressed syllable, so the past form is the same as the plain verb: vertel → het vertel.

Take the separable verb, put ge- after its prefix and place the whole word at the end after het: aankom → aangekom.

Some nouns change sound before the plural -e: brief → briewe, hof → howe, dag → dae, vlag → vlae, oog → oë.

Plurals in -e follow the syllable spelling rules: boom → bome, skool → skole, kat → katte, bus → busse.

All diminutives end in -ie, so their plural is always -s: katjie → katjies, huisie → huisies, stoeltjie → stoeltjies. The base noun's own plural does not matter: kat → katte, but katjie → katjies.

With a time word, the present tense often talks about the future: Ek kom môre (I am coming tomorrow), Ons vlieg Vrydag Johannesburg toe (We are flying to Johannesburg on Friday). No extra verb is needed.

For myself, yourself and so on, Afrikaans usually uses the object pronoun that matches the subject: Hy skeer hom (He shaves), Ek bekommer my oor die toets (I'm worried about the test). Some verbs always need one, such as jou haas (hurry).

In a main clause the verb stays second and its prefix moves to the end. After a modal, the verb stays in one piece at the end.

Add -ste for the most, usually with die: die grootste huis, die kleinste kind, die mooiste dag. The -ste goes on the basic form, so koud → koudste. After s both letters stay: snaaks → snaaksste, vars → varsste.

Ask Hoe laat is dit? and answer with forms like tienuur, kwart oor drie and tien voor vier. Om means at: om agtuur. Halfvier means half past three, not half past four.

In a main-clause statement, the finite verb is always the second element. If a time word or phrase comes first, the subject moves behind the verb.

In a clause that starts with a word such as dat, omdat or as, the subject comes right after the conjunction and the finite verb moves to the end.

Aan means on or at when something is attached or hanging: Die prent hang aan die muur. It also means switched on (Die lig is aan) and appears in fixed phrases like aan tafel (at the table) and dink aan (think of).

Altyd means always and nooit means never: Sy is altyd vroeg (She is always early), Hy eet nooit vleis nie (He never eats meat). Nooit takes the place of the first nie, and nie still comes at the end. On its own, Nooit! also means No way!

As introduces a condition (if) or a time that is repeated or still to come (when, whenever). The verb goes to the end of the as-clause.

Use as after a comparative to say than: Hy is ouer as ek. Die trein is vinniger as die bus.

Dat joins a clause to verbs such as dink, weet, sê and hoop. After dat, the verb goes to the end.

Deur means through: deur die park, deur die venster. In a passive sentence it means by and names who did it: Die boek is deur haar geskryf. Deur is also the noun door.

Is often shrinks and joins the word before it: dis = dit is, hy's = hy is, sy's = sy is, daar's = daar is. Dis koud vandag (It's cold today). The short forms mean exactly the same as the full words.

Elke means every (elke dag), alle means all (alle kinders), almal means everyone (Almal is hier) and alles means everything (Alles is reg). In speech, al die is more common than alle: al die kinders.

Gaan + infinitive talks about plans and the near future, like going to: Ek gaan môre swem (I am going to swim tomorrow), Dit gaan reën (It is going to rain). The infinitive goes to the end, with no te.

Geen goes before a noun and means no or not any: Ek het geen geld nie (I have no money). Nie with the noun means the same: Ek het nie geld nie.

A group of short adjectives changes its sound before a noun, as in 'n goeie vriend, 'n ou man and koue water.

Put het in second place and the verb with ge- at the end. The forms are the same for every person.

The past of het (have) is het ... gehad: het stays in second place and gehad goes to the end of the clause.

Iemand means someone and niemand means no one: Iemand klop aan die deur (Someone is knocking at the door), Niemand is by die huis nie (Nobody is at home). Niemand takes the place of the first nie, and nie still comes at the end.

Iets means something and niks means nothing: Ek wil iets eet (I want to eat something), Ek het niks gekoop nie (I didn't buy anything). Niks takes the place of the first nie, and the second nie still comes at the end.

Is besig om te + infinitive stresses that an action is in progress right now: Ek is besig om te kook (I am cooking), Hulle is besig om die huis te verf (They are painting the house). The object goes between om and te.

Born is gebore, used with is: Ek is in Pretoria gebore (I was born in Pretoria), Waar is jy gebore? (Where were you born?). Use is even where English says was, and put gebore at the end.

Kom ons or laat ons + verb makes a suggestion: Kom ons gaan eet! (Let's go and eat!), Laat ons begin (Let's begin). Kom ons is the everyday form, and laat ons sounds more formal.

Three modals have past forms: kan → kon (could), moet → moes (had to), wil → wou (wanted to): Ek kon nie kom nie (I couldn't come), Ons moes wag (We had to wait), Sy wou huis toe gaan (She wanted to go home).

To say where something is, Afrikaans often uses a position verb instead of is: Die boek lê op die tafel, Die melk staan in die yskas, Die prent hang aan die muur.

Mekaar means each other: Hulle help mekaar (They help each other), Ons sien mekaar môre (We'll see each other tomorrow). It never changes form and points back to two or more people, usually a plural subject.

Moenie (moet nie) makes a negative command, with nie again at the end: Moenie huil nie! (Don't cry!), Moenie so hard praat nie (Don't talk so loudly). The same form is used for one person or more.

When a possessive stands alone, it takes a special form: myne, joune, syne, hare, and ons s'n, julle s'n, hulle s'n, u s'n: Die kar is myne (The car is mine). S'n also follows names and nouns: Dit is Jan s'n (It's Jan's).

Nadat introduces an action that is finished before the main action. The verb goes to the end, usually as a participle followed by het.

Nog nie means not yet and nie meer means no longer, and both are closed by nie at the end: Ek is nog nie klaar nie (I'm not finished yet), Hy woon nie meer hier nie (He doesn't live here anymore).

Ná means after: ná skool (after school), ná die ete (after the meal). The accent shows it is the time word, not na meaning to: Ek gaan na die winkel (I'm going to the shop).

Add nè? to the end of a statement to ask someone to agree: Dis warm, nè? (It's hot, isn't it?). Hè? on its own means Huh? or What did you say?

Use om for clock times: om agtuur (at eight o'clock). For places it means around: om die hoek (around the corner), om die tafel (around the table).

Omdat gives a reason. After omdat the verb goes to the end, while want, which also means because, keeps normal order.

These prepositions show position: onder die tafel (under the table), agter die huis (behind the house), langs my (next to me), tussen die bome (among the trees). Langs also means along: langs die rivier.

Ook nie means not either: Ek hou ook nie van koffie nie (I don't like coffee either). The short answer Ek ook nie means me neither.

Oor means over or across (oor die brug), about ('n boek oor diere), past on the clock (kwart oor drie) and in for time from now (oor 'n week, in a week).

'n Paar means a few: 'n paar dae. Party and sommige mean some: Party mense hou van reën, Sommige winkels is op Sondag oop.

So 'n means such a or a ... like that: so 'n mooi dag. Sulke is used for plurals and for things you cannot count: sulke lekker koekies, sulke lekker koffie.

Use so + adjective + soos to say two things are equal, and nie so ... soos ... nie to say they are not.

Soggens (in the morning), smiddags (in the afternoon), saans (in the evening) and snags (at night) describe habits: Ek drink soggens koffie. For today, use vanoggend, vanmiddag, vanaand or vannag.

Sonder means without: koffie sonder suiker (coffee without sugar), Hy het sonder 'n jas gegaan (He went without a coat). Pronouns after it take the object form: sonder hom.

Sou + infinitive means would: Dit sou lekker wees (That would be nice), Ek sou graag wil help (I would like to help). Sou is also the past of sal: Hy het gesê hy sou later bel (He said he would call later).

Te before an adjective means too, and genoeg after it means enough: Die koffie is te warm, Is die kamer groot genoeg? Before a noun, genoeg means enough too: genoeg tyd.

Teen means against: Hy leun teen die muur (He leans against the wall). With a time it means by: Ons is teen vyfuur klaar (We will be done by five).

Terwyl joins two actions that happen at the same time. It can also contrast two facts, like whereas. The verb goes to the end.

Toe joins a clause about a single past event (when). The verb goes to the end, and it can stay in its present form because toe already shows the past.

Tot means until or up to: tot môre (until tomorrow), van nege tot vyf (from nine to five), tot by die hek (as far as the gate).

Totdat names the event that ends the main action. The verb goes to the end. Before a noun or a time, use tot instead.

Before a person, vir often marks who receives something or who the verb acts on: Gee dit vir my (Give it to me), Sê vir hom ek kom (Tell him I'm coming), Ek sien vir Jan (I see Jan). Things do not take this vir.

Voor means in front of for a place and before for a time: voor die winkel (in front of the shop), voor sesuur (before six o'clock). For is vir, not voor, and ago is gelede.

Voordat introduces an action that happens later than the main action. The verb goes to the end. Before a noun or a time, use voor instead.

Wanneer can join two clauses and means when or whenever. Its verb goes to the end: Bel my wanneer jy klaar is (Call me when you are done). For one single event in the past, use toe instead.

Was is the past of is for every person: ek was, jy was, hulle was. It is the normal way to say was or were.

Put wat 'n before a noun to make an exclamation: Wat 'n mooi dag! (What a beautiful day!). To say how ...!, use hoe with an adjective: Hoe mooi! (How beautiful!)

Use weet for facts and information: Ek weet waar hy woon (I know where he lives). Use ken for people, places and languages you are familiar with: Ek ken hom (I know him), Ken jy Kaapstad?

Word means become: Dit word donker (It is getting dark), Sy wil 'n dokter word (She wants to become a doctor). The past is het ... geword: Hy het siek geword (He got sick).

Êrens means somewhere and nêrens means nowhere: Ek het my sleutels êrens neergesit (I put my keys down somewhere), Ek kan hom nêrens kry nie (I can't find him anywhere). Nêrens takes the place of the first nie, and nie still comes at the end.

Add -er to a verb stem for the person who does it: werk → werker, bak → bakker, lees → leser, skryf → skrywer. After r the ending is -der: leer → leerder.

Add -heid to an adjective to name a quality or state: skoon → skoonheid (beauty), vry → vryheid (freedom), moontlik → moontlikheid (possibility). The plural is -hede: moontlikhede.

-ig makes adjectives, often meaning having or full of: son → sonnig (sunny), geluk → gelukkig (happy, lucky), lus → lustig (cheerful). Before a noun it becomes -ige: 'n sonnige dag.

Add -ing to a verb stem to name the action or its result: vergader → vergadering (meeting), verwag → verwagting (expectation), teken → tekening (drawing). The plural is usually -s.

-lik makes adjectives: vriend → vriendelik (friendly), gevaar → gevaarlik (dangerous), moontlik, heerlik. Before a noun it becomes -like, with a single k: 'n vriendelike man.

When an adjective replaces a noun, it takes -e even if it would not take -e before a noun: die rooie (the red one), die grotes (the big ones), die armes (the poor).

Many adjectives go with a fixed preposition: bang vir (afraid of), lief vir (fond of), trots op (proud of), kwaad vir (angry with), gewoond aan (used to): Sy is bang vir honde.

After a short stressed vowel followed by l, m, n or r, double the consonant and add -etjie: bal → balletjie, kam → kammetjie, man → mannetjie, ster → sterretjie. A stressed final ng adds -etjie without doubling: ring → ringetjie.

A noun ending in unstressed -ing drops its g and adds -kie: koning → koninkie (little king), ketting → kettinkie (little chain), tekening → tekeninkie (little drawing). A stressed ng word takes -etjie instead: ring → ringetjie.

After an m that follows a long vowel, a diphthong or an unstressed syllable, and after rm or lm, the diminutive ending is -pie: boom → boompie (little tree), besem → besempie (little broom), arm → armpie (little arm), film → filmpie (short video).

Afrikaans doubles some words, joined by a hyphen, to strengthen or spread out their meaning: gou-gou (very quickly), kort-kort (every so often), stukkie-stukkie (bit by bit), een-een (one by one), lag-lag (easily).

A few nouns for people have a female form: onderwyser → onderwyseres, vriend → vriendin, sanger → sangeres, skrywer → skryfster. Today the plain form often covers everyone, especially for jobs.

A question can sit inside another sentence. Yes/no questions start with of (whether), other questions keep their question word, and the verb goes to the end: Ek weet nie of hy kom nie (I don't know whether he is coming), Weet jy waar sy woon? (Do you know where she lives?).

After verbs such as dink, sê, weet, glo and hoop, Afrikaans often leaves out dat. Without dat, the verb stays in second place: Ek dink hy is reg. With dat, it goes to the end: Ek dink dat hy reg is.

Many compound nouns join their parts with a linking s or e: stadsraad (city council), verjaarsdag (birthday), sakeman (businessman), hondekos (dog food). Others take no link at all, such as tandarts (dentist), so learn the form with each word.

Hulle joined to a name or family word with a hyphen means that person and their group: Ma-hulle (Mom and the others), Thabo-hulle kom vanaand (Thabo and them are coming tonight).

A regular ge- form used before a noun adds -te after k, p, s and f, and -de after most other sounds: 'n gekookte eier, die gesteelde kar. After is it stays plain: Die eier is gekook.

The present passive is word + the ge- form: Die huis word gebou (The house is being built). To say who does it, add deur: deur my ma (by my mom).

For a finished action in the passive, Afrikaans uses is + the ge- form: Die huis is in 1990 gebou (The house was built in 1990). Is here does not mean the action is happening now.

When a preposition comes before who or whom, Afrikaans uses the preposition + wie: die man vir wie ek werk (the man for whom I work). The preposition always stands before wie.

To report what someone said, use dat or leave it out: Hy het gesê (dat) hy moeg is. Report a yes/no question with of: Sy het gevra of ek kom. Afrikaans normally keeps the original tense, so ek is becomes hy is.

South African schools teach the order Subject, Verb 1, Time, Object, Manner, Place, Verb 2, Infinitive (STOMPI): Ek het gister my ma met die motor stasie toe geneem. Time usually comes before manner and place.

A separable verb splits in a main clause (Hy staan vroeg op), but in a subordinate clause it stays whole at the end: Ek weet dat hy vroeg opstaan.

A subordinate clause at the start counts as the first place of the sentence, so the main clause starts with its verb: As dit reën, bly ons tuis (If it rains, we stay home).

Some verbs link to another action with om ... te: Ek probeer om elke dag te lees (I try to read every day). Modals such as wil, kan and moet never take om te.

Verbs at the end of a clause follow a fixed order: het comes last after the ge- form (dat hy gewerk het), but a modal comes first (omdat ek moet werk, dat sy sal kom).

Many verbs go with a fixed preposition: wag vir (wait for), dink aan (think of), praat oor (talk about), glo in (believe in), kyk na (look at). Learn the preposition together with the verb: Ek wag vir die bus.

Diminutives show small size, but also affection (my skatjie, my darling), politeness or a small amount ('n koppie tee, 'n bietjie). Some everyday words are mainly used as diminutives: meisie (girl), mandjie (basket).

The first nie follows the verb, pronoun objects and most time words, and comes before manner and place phrases and the final verbs: Ek sien hom nie; Ek het hom gister nie gesien nie; Hy werk nie hier nie.

For something that started in the past and is still going on, use the present with al: Ek woon al vyf jaar hier, Hoe lank leer jy al Afrikaans?

Al means already, nog means still or more, and eers means first or only then: Is jy al klaar? Hy slaap nog, Ek moet eers eet.

Toe is for a single event in the past, while as and wanneer are for the present, the future and repeated events, even in the past: Toe ek in Kaapstad was, ...; As ek in Kaapstad is, ... Only wanneer can ask a question.

Asof means as if and often follows lyk, maak, voel and klink. Its verb goes to the end: Dit lyk asof dit gaan reën (It looks as if it is going to rain). Maak asof means to pretend.

Words like daarvan and daaraan can split in two: Daar weet ek niks van nie (I know nothing about it). Daar comes early, and the preposition moves to just before the final verbs and nie. The joined word is always correct too.

For things, Afrikaans uses daar (it, that), hier (this) or waar (what) + preposition in one word: daarmee (with it), hiervoor (for this), Waaroor praat julle? (What are you talking about?) Met, vir and tot become mee, voor and toe.

Adverbs such as daarom (so, therefore), dus (so, thus), toe (then), dan (then) and anders (otherwise) take first place in their clause, so the verb follows them directly: Dit reën, daarom bly ons tuis.

Darem means at least or after all, often with relief: Dit reën, maar dit is darem nie koud nie (It's raining, but at least it isn't cold). It can also mean really, with mild surprise: Jy is darem slim! (You really are clever!)

Use Dit is + an adjective + om ... te to say what an activity is like: Dit is lekker om te swem (It is nice to swim). Dit is the subject, and the activity comes after the adjective.

With an accent, dié is a stressed this or that rather than the article die: dié keer (this time), Dit is dié man van wie ek gepraat het (That is the man I talked about).

Enige means any: in questions (Het jy enige vrae?) and when it doesn't matter which (Enige kind weet dit). Enigiets (anything) and enigiemand (anyone) are usually written as one word: Ek eet enigiets.

In speech and informal writing, geen is often shortened to g'n, still with nie at the end: Ek het g'n geld nie (I have no money). Formal writing uses geen.

Glad nie means not at all, and the second nie still comes at the end: Ek is glad nie moeg nie (I'm not tired at all). Glad niks means nothing at all: Ek het glad niks gehoor nie.

Placed after the conjugated verb, glo means apparently or so they say: Hy is glo siek (He is apparently sick), Dit gaan glo môre reën. As the main verb, glo means believe: Ek glo jou (I believe you).

Ek het nie kon kom nie means the same as Ek kon nie kom nie (I couldn't come). Het takes second place, and the modal and a bare infinitive go to the end, with no ge-.

Gaan and kom join a plain infinitive to mean go and do or come and do: Ons gaan swem (We are going swimming), Kom kuier by ons (Come and visit us). In the past, gaan and kom take no ge-: Ons het gister gaan swem.

Hoe + comparative, then hoe + comparative, means the more ..., the more: Hoe meer jy oefen, hoe beter word jy (The more you practise, the better you get). Al hoe + comparative means more and more: Dit word al hoe kouer.

Hoef nie te means don't have to: Jy hoef nie te kom nie (You don't have to come). Hoef is not used in plain positive statements; use moet there. Moet nie means must not.

Hoewel and alhoewel mean although and are used in the same way. The verb of their clause goes to the end: Hoewel dit koud is, gaan ons swem (Although it is cold, we are going swimming).

In everyday speech hy (he) often refers to things, especially machines and objects: Waar is my foon? Hy lê op die tafel. In careful writing dit is more usual.

An adjective after iets or niks takes -s instead of -e: iets lekkers (something nice), iets nuuts (something new), niks besonders nie (nothing special). An adjective that already ends in s does not add another.

Laat + infinitive means let or have something done: Laat my gaan! (Let me go!), Ek laat my hare sny (I have my hair cut). In the past laat takes no ge-: Sy het die kar laat was.

As a particle maar softens a request or shows acceptance: Kom maar in, Ek sal maar wag, Dis maar hoe dit is.

Most adjectives compare with -er and -ste, but some longer ones, especially those ending in -e and many participles, use meer and mees: meer ontspanne, die mees gewilde sanger. Never combine meer or mees with -er or -ste.

The word mens, or 'n mens, means one or people in general: 'n Mens moet water drink, Mens weet nooit. In speech, jy is often used the same way, and hulle can mean people in general.

Moes + ge- form + het usually means should have: Jy moes my gebel het (You should have called me). It often sounds like regret or a gentle complaint.

Mos points to something the listener already knows or should see: Ek het jou mos gesê! Dit is mos Saterdag.

Nie net ... nie, maar ook means not only ... but also. Nie net comes before the first thing, a second nie closes that part, and maar ook adds the second thing: Sy praat nie net Afrikaans nie, maar ook Zoeloe.

Om ... te + infinitive expresses purpose, with the object between om and te: Ek gaan winkel toe om brood te koop (I'm going to the shop to buy bread).

On- makes an adjective or noun negative, like un-: moontlik → onmoontlik (impossible), gelukkig → ongelukkig (unhappy), bekend → onbekend (unknown). It is always written as part of the word.

Older people are politely called oom (uncle) and tannie (aunt), even outside the family, and these words can replace jy: Dankie, tannie! Wil oom koffie hê?

Sal + ge- form + het says something will be done by a certain time: Teen Vrydag sal ek die boek gelees het (By Friday I will have read the book). It can also be a guess about the past: Hy sal al aangekom het.

Sedert and sinds mean since, from a point in time until now. They come before a time (sedert Januarie) or start a clause with the verb at the end (sinds ek klein was). Sedert is the more common word.

Sien (see), hoor (hear) and voel (feel) take an object and a plain infinitive at the end: Ek sien hom kom (I see him coming), Ons hoor die kinders sing (We hear the children singing). In the past: Ek het hom sien kom.

A posture verb + en + another verb describes an ongoing action: Sy sit en lees (She is sitting reading), Hy staan en wag (He is standing waiting). In the past only the first verb takes ge-: Sy het gesit en lees.

Sodat means so that and tells you the purpose or the result of something. Its verb goes to the end, and a modal such as kan often comes before the last verb: Praat harder sodat ek jou kan hoor (Speak louder so that I can hear you).

Sodra means as soon as: one thing happens right after another. Its verb goes to the end: Bel my sodra jy daar is (Call me as soon as you are there).

Sommer means just, for no special reason, or straight away: Ek het sommer gebel (I just called), Hy het sommer begin lag (He just started laughing). On its own, Sommer! answers a why question with just because.

Sonder om ... te means without doing something: Hy het gegaan sonder om te groet (He left without saying goodbye). Om is always needed after sonder.

With a separable verb such as opstaan or aantrek, te goes between the prefix and the verb, and the three parts are written as three words: om op te staan (to get up), om aan te trek (to get dressed).

Stories often use the present tense, with toe (then) moving events forward: Toe kom die man in, en toe sê hy ... Toe ek daar aankom, staan hy voor die deur.

Tog adds insistence, surprise or a gentle push, and can also mean still or after all: Kom tog in! Sy het tog gekom.

Some prepositions pair with a second word after the noun: van die dak af (off the roof), van Maandag af (from Monday on), na die winkel toe (to the shop), tot Vrydag toe (until Friday).

Waar can describe a place, like English where: die winkel waar sy werk (the shop where she works). The verb goes to the end. For a time, use toe or waarop, not waar.

For things, a preposition + relative pronoun becomes waar + preposition in one word: die pen waarmee ek skryf (the pen I write with). Met becomes mee, vir becomes voor and tot becomes toe. For people, use the preposition + wie.

Both mean because, but want keeps main-clause order while omdat sends the verb to the end: Ek bly tuis, want ek is siek; Ek bly tuis omdat ek siek is. Only an omdat clause can start the sentence.

Wat means who, which or that in a relative clause, for people and for things: die man wat hier woon (the man who lives here), die boek wat ek lees (the book that I am reading). The verb goes to the end.

Wie se means whose: Wie se boek is dit? (Whose book is this?) It also starts relative clauses about people: die man wie se kar gesteel is (the man whose car was stolen). With no noun after it, say wie s'n.

Afrikaans cannot say I want you to come word for word. Use wil hê + a clause, usually with moet: Ek wil hê jy moet kom (I want you to come).

Óf ... óf means either ... or and puts one óf before each choice: Ons gaan óf vandag óf môre (We are going either today or tomorrow). It is written with accents, which show the stress.

-baar turns a verb into an adjective meaning -able: eet → eetbaar (edible), drink → drinkbaar (drinkable), lees → leesbaar (readable). Before a noun it becomes -bare: bruikbare inligting (useful information).

Add -ende to a verb to describe a person or thing that is doing something: 'n slapende kind (a sleeping child), lopende water (running water), die komende week (the coming week). It works as an adjective, not as a tense.

-loos makes adjectives meaning without, like English -less: werk → werkloos (unemployed), kleur → kleurloos (colourless), draad → draadloos (wireless). Some words have -e- before it: hoop → hopeloos (hopeless).

The suffix -skap forms nouns for a relationship, state or group, often like English -ship: vriend → vriendskap (friendship), leier → leierskap (leadership), gemeenskap (community). The plural is -skappe: vriendskappe.

A word joined in front of an adjective makes it much stronger: yskoud (ice-cold), doodmoeg (dead tired), splinternuut (brand-new), pikdonker (pitch-dark). Write it as one word, and add -e before a noun as usual: 'n splinternuwe kar.

Some adjectives make nouns with -te, mainly for measurements: lank → lengte (length), hoog → hoogte (height), breed → breedte (width), diep → diepte (depth), groot → grootte (size). Others name a quality: warm → warmte (warmth).

Verbs form their past with their regular form (gebreek, verloor), but some also keep an old participle used only as an adjective: 'n gebroke hart (a broken heart), die geskrewe taal (the written language), 'n verlore kind (a lost child), bevrore groente (frozen vegetables).

Modal + ... + ge- form + word makes a passive with can, must, will and similar verbs: Dit moet vandag gedoen word (It must be done today), Die brief kan môre gestuur word (The letter can be sent tomorrow).

Was + ge- form looks back from a past moment: Die deur was gesluit (The door was locked), Die huis was al verkoop toe ons kom (The house had already been sold when we came). For a plain past event, use is + ge- form.

Adjectives from names of places, countries and languages end in -se when they stand before a noun, and they keep their capital letter: Suid-Afrikaanse wyn, Engelse boeke, Stellenbosse wynplase. After is, the -e drops: Die wyn is Suid-Afrikaans.

When a verb has two objects, the thing usually comes first and vir goes before the person: Ek gee die boek vir haar. The person can also come first: Ek gee haar die boek (I give her the book).

To imagine a different past, use as + ge- form + het, then sou + ge- form + het: As ek geweet het, sou ek gekom het (If I had known, I would have come).

The plain verb can name an activity, where English uses -ing: Swem is gesond (Swimming is healthy). With die it works like an ordinary noun, and its object follows with van: die lees van boeke (the reading of books).

Aan die + infinitive describes something in progress, especially a process or state such as sleeping, burning or rising: Die baba is aan die slaap (The baby is asleep), Die huis is aan die brand (The house is on fire), Die pryse is aan die styg (Prices are rising).

Aangesien means since or seeing that and gives a reason. It sends the verb to the end: Aangesien dit reën, bly ons binne (Since it is raining, we are staying inside).

An as-clause with maar can stand alone as a wish or a regret: As ek maar geweet het! (If only I had known!), As dit maar wil reën! (If only it would rain!).

To talk about something you only imagine, put was, a past modal or sou in the if-clause and sou in the main clause: As ek ryk was, sou ek 'n huis koop (If I were rich, I would buy a house), As ek jy was, sou ek gaan (If I were you, I would go).

Be- forms verbs, often making them take a direct object: antwoord → beantwoord (answer something), woon → bewoon (live in). Be- never splits off, and its participle has no ge-: Ek het die vraag beantwoord.

Behoort te + infinitive means ought to or should. It gives advice or says what you can expect: Jy behoort te rus (You ought to rest), Dit behoort môre klaar te wees (It should be ready tomorrow).

Daar word + ge- form talks about an activity without naming anyone: Daar word gesê dat ... (It is said that ...). For the past, use daar is: Daar is gisteraand lekker gedans (There was some great dancing last night).

A preposition cannot stand right before dat or om te. Instead, daar + the preposition points ahead to the clause: Sy hou daarvan om te lees (She likes reading), Ek sien daarna uit om jou te sien (I'm looking forward to seeing you).

Instead of starting with a long clause, Afrikaans puts dit first and the dat clause at the end: Dit is jammer dat jy nie kan kom nie (It's a pity that you can't come), Dit is duidelik dat sy reg is (It's clear that she's right).

Afrikaans usually uses het + ge- form for both did and had done. To stress that one event came first, you can add gehad: Hy het al vertrek gehad toe ek daar aankom (He had already left when I arrived).

Hul and jul are shorter forms of hulle and julle. They are used mostly before a noun, as in hul kinders (their children) and jul huis (your house), and in the reflexives hulself and julself. The full forms are always correct too.

Indien means if and is used mostly in formal and official writing. Like as, it sends the verb to the end: Indien u vrae het, kontak ons gerus (If you have any questions, feel free to contact us).

Is + te + infinitive has a passive meaning: the subject can be, or is there to be, acted on. Die huis is te koop (The house is for sale), Hierdie kamer is te huur (This room is for rent), Hy is nêrens te sien nie (He is nowhere to be seen).

Kon + ge- form + het means could have. It often describes a chance that was missed, and it can also say that something possibly happened: Hy kon dit gedoen het (He could have done it), Jy kon my gevra het! (You could have asked me!).

To guess what happened, use moet or kan with a ge- form and het: Hy moet siek gewees het (He must have been sick), Sy kan dit vergeet het (She may have forgotten it). Moes ... het usually means should have instead.

The second nie closes the whole negative part. After a dat, of or question-word clause it comes at the very end: Ek weet nie of hy kom nie (I don't know whether he's coming), Ek dink nie dat dit waar is nie (I don't think that it's true).

Nogal means rather or quite, often with mild surprise: Die kos is nogal lekker (The food is actually quite nice). In en dit nogal it adds a surprising detail, and Ja, nogal gives a cautious yes.

Nóg ... nóg means neither ... nor. It is written with accents to tell it apart from nog (still), and it needs no closing nie: Die kinders het nóg geld nóg kos gehad (The children had neither money nor food).

Ont- often means un- or away (ontsluit, unlock; ontsnap, escape), and her- means again (herhaal, repeat; herbou, rebuild). Neither takes ge-: Ek het die les herhaal (I repeated the lesson).

Ooit means ever. It is used mostly in questions (Was jy al ooit in Namibië?), after superlatives (die beste ete ooit) and after as (if). In a plain negative statement, use nooit (never), not nie ooit.

Prefixes such as oor-, deur-, om-, onder- and voor- can be stressed and separable or unstressed and inseparable: Ons steek die straat oor (oorsteek), but Hy oortree die reël (oortree). The participles are oorgesteek and oortree.

Some adjectives become adverbs with a diminutive ending plus -s, giving a soft, gentle or careful manner: saggies (softly), stilletjies (quietly), liggies (lightly), alleentjies (all alone). They describe how something is done, not a noun.

Two modals can work together. The first one takes second place, and the second one stands at the end just before the other verb: Ek sal môre kan kom (I will be able to come tomorrow), Hy sal moet werk (He will have to work).

Sal and moet do not always talk about the future or duty. They can also make a guess about now: Hy sal seker moeg wees (He is probably tired), Sy moet siek wees (She must be sick).

Selfs means even and goes right before the part it highlights: Selfs die kinders het gehelp (Even the children helped), Hy werk selfs Sondae (He even works on Sundays). For not even, Afrikaans usually says nie eers ... nie.

Skyn te means seem to, and blyk te means turn out to, when facts show it: Hy skyn moeg te wees (He seems to be tired), Die storie blyk waar te wees (The story turns out to be true).

Put so before an adjective or adverb and add a dat clause to give the result: Dit was so warm dat ons gaan swem het (It was so hot that we went swimming).

Solank means as long as and sends the verb to the end: Solank jy hier is, is ek gelukkig (As long as you are here, I am happy). It is written as one word.

Sou softens what you say. Sou jy my kan help? (Could you help me?) is more polite than Kan jy my help?, and Ek sou graag ... wil hê is a polite I would like.

Sou + ge- form + het means would have: Ek sou gekom het, maar ek was siek (I would have come, but I was sick). It is mostly used for things that could have happened but did not.

Sowel ... as means both ... and. It joins two words or phrases, mostly in careful speech and writing: sowel kinders as volwassenes (both children and adults).

Use te + adjective + om te for too ... to, and adjective + genoeg + om te for ... enough to: Hy is te moeg om te werk (He is too tired to work), Sy is oud genoeg om te bestuur (She is old enough to drive).

Ten spyte van and ondanks both mean despite and go before a noun: Ten spyte van die reën het ons gespeel (Despite the rain, we played). Before a clause, use ten spyte daarvan dat.

Tensy means unless and sends the verb to the end: Ons gaan stap, tensy dit reën (We are going for a walk, unless it rains). The tensy clause itself has no nie.

Ver- builds verbs of change (verander, verbeter), loss (verloor, vergeet) and error (verdwaal, verslaap). It is never stressed, and its participle has no ge-: Ek het my sleutels verloor (I lost my keys).

Wat can refer back to a whole statement, like English which: Hy het laat gekom, wat almal verbaas het (He came late, which surprised everyone). The verb goes to the end of the wat clause.

Wat ... betref means as for, or as far as something is concerned: Wat my betref, is dit reg (As far as I am concerned, it is fine). A pronoun takes its object form: wat my betref, not wat ek betref.

Weens and as gevolg van mean because of or due to and go before a noun: Die skool is gesluit weens die storm (The school is closed because of the storm). Weens is short and common in news and notices.

Wel says that something really is so, often against a negative: Ek het nie geld nie, maar ek het wel tyd (I don't have money, but I do have time). With sal it marks a likely guess, and at the start of a reply Wel means well.

To stress who or what did something, put it between dit is (or dit was) and wat, then add the rest with the verb at the end: Dit is my broer wat gebel het, nie my suster nie.

In more formal Afrikaans, as can be left out of a condition, and the verb then comes first: Sou u enige vrae hê, kontak ons gerus (Should you have any questions, feel free to contact us); Het ek dit geweet, sou ek gekom het (Had I known, I would have come).

Formal writing uses multi-word prepositions such as met betrekking tot, ten opsigte van, na aanleiding van and deur middel van: Ek skryf na aanleiding van u navraag.

Formal writing prefers full forms and formal words, such as dit is instead of dis, indien for as and ontvang for kry, and uses more passives: Die aansoek moet voor 1 Maart ingedien word.

Spoken Afrikaans often names the topic first and then repeats it as a pronoun (Daardie man, hy werk saam met my), or starts with a pronoun and names what it means at the end (Hy is baie slim, daardie kind). The pronoun must match the noun.

Write a compound as one word, but add a hyphen where two vowels meet and could be misread (see-eend, na-aap), after an abbreviation (TV-program) and where a point of the compass joins a place name (Suid-Afrika).

A participle phrase can stand in for a full clause in formal writing: Tuis aangekom, het hy dadelik gaan slaap. Its missing subject is the subject of the main clause.

Standard word order puts phrases before the final verb, but a prepositional phrase can also come after it, especially when it is long or in speech: Ek het lank gewag vir die bus. Objects without a preposition always stay before the final verb.

Start with a wat clause to create a little suspense, then give the point after is or was: Wat ek nodig het, is 'n koppie koffie (What I need is a cup of coffee). The verb inside the wat clause goes to the end.

Everyday speech uses short forms such as dis, daai and g'n, mixes in English words and often adds phrases after the final verb. Standard writing follows the AWS spelling rules and prefers fuller forms.

Particles often combine to fine-tune the tone: Ek wou maar net vra, Hy het sommer net gegaan, Kom tog maar in.

An acute accent marks extra stress for emphasis: Jy móét kom! (You really must come!), Dít is wat ek bedoel. (That is what I mean.) Both letters of a double vowel take the accent, but in ie only the e does: nié.

Al + a verb with -ende describes something done while doing something else: Hy het al lopende sy toebroodjie geëet. It sounds careful or literary.

Al followed straight away by the verb means even though or even if: Al is dit koud, gaan ons swem (Even though it's cold, we're going swimming). The main clause usually puts its verb first, but normal order is also used.

Al dan nie means "whether or not" and is mostly written: Die hof moet besluit of hy skuldig is al dan nie. In speech, people say of nie.

Derhalwe and gevolglik are formal words for "therefore" and "consequently". At the start of a clause the verb follows them: Die pad is gesluit; gevolglik moet ons omry.

Hetsy ... of means "whether ... or" and is used mostly in formal writing: Alle lede, hetsy jonk of oud, is welkom. You can also repeat hetsy: hetsy per e-pos hetsy per brief.

Hoe ... ook al means however or no matter how: Hoe hard hy ook al probeer, hy kan nie wen nie (However hard he tries, he can't win). The adjective stays next to hoe and the verb goes to the end of the clause.

Hoegenaamd nie and geensins are careful ways to say not at all or by no means: Dit is hoegenaamd nie maklik nie. Dit is geensins die geval nie. The closing nie still ends the sentence.

Mag at the start of a sentence expresses a wish or blessing: Mag dit goed gaan met jou! Mag julle baie gelukkig wees.

Nogtans and nietemin mean "nevertheless". At the start of a clause they are followed by the verb: Hy was siek; nogtans het hy gewerk.

Reports use sou to pass on a claim without confirming it: sou + ge- form + het for the past (Die man sou die kar gesteel het, the man allegedly stole the car) and sou + infinitive for the present. Na bewering (allegedly) or glo often go with it.

Sover, or vir sover, means "as far as" and sends the verb to the end: Sover ek weet, kom hy nie. Ons help vir sover dit moontlik is.

Ten einde ... te means "in order to" and belongs to formal writing: Die pad is gesluit ten einde herstelwerk te doen. In everyday speech, use om ... te.

Ten and ter are old forms of te + article kept in fixed phrases: ten minste (at least), ten spyte van (in spite of), ter wille van (for the sake of), ter sake (relevant).

Add ook al to a question word to get whoever, whatever, wherever and whenever: Wat jy ook al doen, moenie opgee nie (Whatever you do, don't give up). The subject comes before ook al and the verb goes to the end.

Met + noun + description adds a circumstance, much like English with: Met sy hande in sy sakke het hy gewag (With his hands in his pockets, he waited). The description can be a place phrase, an adjective or an adverb.

An old pattern of ge- + noun + -te makes collective nouns for a group or mass of things: gebergte (mountain range), gebeente (bones, remains), gesteente (rock), gedierte (creatures), gebladerte (foliage). You cannot make new words this way.

Everyday Afrikaans often mixes in English words, but the grammar around them stays Afrikaans: Ons het net ge-chill (We just chilled). In standard writing, use the Afrikaans word, such as rekenaar (computer) and selfoon (cellphone).

Legal and official texts use formal connectors and set phrases such as ingevolge (in terms of), kragtens (by virtue of), onderhawige (under discussion) and genoemde (the said), along with passives, nominal style and requests with geliewe ... te.

Older literature and Bible translations use forms that are rare in speech, such as the conjunction dog (yet) and the genitive des, a capital U when addressing God, and inverted word order for emphasis: Groot is die liefde van God.

An active verb with a thing as its subject can describe how easily something is done: Die boek lees lekker (reads well), Hierdie mes sny goed (cuts well). It needs an adverb such as lekker or maklik, and never a reflexive pronoun.

Headlines leave out articles and auxiliary verbs: Man in ongeluk dood, Nuwe skool geopen. A bare past participle means something has been done, the present tense reports recent events, and gaan + verb announces what will happen.

Official and academic Afrikaans often turns actions into nouns: die uitvoering van die plan instead of die plan uitvoer, oorweging skenk aan instead of oorweeg, 'n aanvang neem instead of begin. Everyday writing is clearer with the plain verb.

Afrikaans shows possession with se or van, but traces of an old genitive survive in set expressions: des te meer (all the more), destyds (at that time), desnoods (if need be), die dag des oordeels (judgment day) and the saying 's lands wyse, 's lands eer.

Afrikaans has lost its subjunctive, but a few fixed phrases keep it: God sy dank (thanks be to God), as 't ware (as it were), hoe dit ook al sy (be that as it may) and Lank lewe die koning! (long live the king). For new wishes, use mag.

Poetry and songs may bend normal word order for rhythm and emphasis, for example by placing an adjective after its noun (die veld so groen) or a verb earlier than prose allows (as ek sien jou gesig). Read it by finding the verb and subject; write prose in normal order.

Afrikaans varies by region and community, including Kaaps (Cape Afrikaans), Oranjerivierafrikaans and the Afrikaans of Namibia. These are full varieties, not mistakes, and differ from the standard in sounds, words and some grammar.

As sou is a formal way to say as if or as though. Sou follows as directly and the infinitive goes to the end: Hy maak as sou hy niks weet nie. Everyday language uses asof.

A few verbs keep old one-word past forms, mostly in writing: had (had), dag or dog (thought), wis (knew), werd (became), mog (was allowed). Dag is also common in speech: Ek dag jy is siek.

Synde (being) and hebbende (having) are old participles of wees and hê used in legal and very formal writing: Die koper, synde 'n maatskappy, ... (The buyer, being a company, ...). Hebbende + object + past participle means having done something.

In exclamations, nie can add emphasis without making the sentence negative: Wat het hy nie alles gesê nie! means he said so many things. Hoe dikwels het ek dit nie al gesê nie! means how often I have said that.

Ofskoon means although in literary or formal writing, and the verb goes to the end: Ofskoon hy moeg was, het hy verder gestap. Everyday Afrikaans uses hoewel or alhoewel.

Sodanig and sodanige mean such in formal writing: sodanige gevalle (such cases), as sodanig (as such). Before a noun it takes -e, and sodanig ... dat means to such an extent that.

A few fixed phrases keep an old infinitive in -e after te: te wete (namely), te wete kom (find out) and te kenne gee (make known, indicate). The -e appears only in these set expressions.

Welke is an old, formal word for which, found in literary, legal and church language: Welke kind het dit gedoen? It survives in set phrases such as in welke mate. Everyday Afrikaans uses watter.