-ko-

Where or How with -ko-

Level 3

The infix or suffix -ko- is the Class 17 relative marker. It is used to describe a general, distant, or unspecified location, translating to "where" or "around where".

How It Works

The relative marker -ko- can attach to verbs in a few different ways:

  • As an infix: Placed immediately after the tense marker. This works with the past tense (e.g., a-li-ko-enda = where he went) and the present continuous tense (e.g., a-na-ko-enda = where he is going).
  • With amba-: Attached to the independent relative root (e.g., ambako = where).
  • As a suffix: Attached to the end of a tenseless, habitual verb (e.g., aendako = where he goes).

Crucial Morphological Rules:
1. When using the future tense marker with an infix relative, -ta- must change to -taka- (e.g., a-taka-ko-enda, not a-ta-ko-enda).
2. Monosyllabic verbs retain their infinitive ku- when using an infix relative (e.g., a-li-ko-kula). However, in suffix relatives, the ku- is dropped because the added suffix shifts the stress (e.g., alako, not akulako).
3. If an object marker is used with an infix relative, it must be placed after the relative marker and before the verb root (e.g., a-li-ko-mw-ona = where he saw him).
4. Tense Restrictions: Infix relatives are strictly limited to only four tense markers: -li- (past), -na- (present), -taka- (future), and -si- (negative). They are forbidden with all other tenses, including the perfect tense, the habitual tense, and conditionals like -ki-, -nge-, or -ngali-. For these other tenses, you must use the amba- construction (e.g., ambako ameenda = where he has gone).

Negative Relatives:
To form a negative relative clause, you have two main options:

  • Tenseless Negative: Use the negative marker -si-, which entirely replaces the affirmative tense marker (Subject Prefix + -si- + Relative + Root). Because this form is tenseless, it relies entirely on context for time. For example, a-si-ko-enda can translate to "where he does not go," "where he did not go," or "where he will not go."
  • With amba-: Because the -si- infix cannot specify time, you must use ambako followed by the standard negative verb when you need to explicitly specify the time or tense of a negative action (e.g., ambako hakuenda = where he did not go).

Class 15 (Infinitive) Agreement:
In addition to its locative function, -ko- is the mandatory relative pronoun for Class 15 verbal nouns (infinitives). For example, Kusoma a-na-ko-ku-penda (The reading that he likes).

Contrasting the Locatives:
Do not confuse -ko- with the other locative relatives:

  • -po- (Class 16): Specific, definite location or time ("exactly where" / "when").
  • -ko- (Class 17): General, indefinite, or distant location ("around where").
  • -mo- (Class 18): Inside an enclosed space ("in where").

Examples (4)

  1. Sijui alikoenda.

    I don't know where (general direction) he went.

    Word by Word: I don't know where he went.

    The relative -ko- is infixed after the past tense marker -li-.

  2. Huko ndiko anakoishi Amina.

    That is generally where Amina lives.

    Word by Word: There is where she lives Amina.

    Notice the agreement: the Class 17 demonstrative 'huko' matches the Class 17 relative '-ko-'.

  3. Mahali ambako tulikutana ni mbali.

    The place where we met is far away.

    Word by Word: Place where we met is far.

    Using the independent relative word 'amba-' with the -ko- suffix.

  4. Sijui atakakoenda kesho.

    I don't know where he will go tomorrow.

    Word by Word: I don't know where he will go tomorrow.

    Notice that the future tense marker -ta- changes to -taka- when a relative infix is added.

Common Mistakes

  • Using -ko- when you mean 'how' (manner).

    Different MeaningSipendi anakoimba.
    Sipendi anavyoimba.

    Sipendi anakoimba is correct, but it means 'I don't like where he sings'. The marker -ko- is strictly for general locations. To express manner ("how"), you must use the Class 8 relative -vyo-.

  • Mixing locative noun classes in the same sentence.

    Hapa ndipo anakoishi.
    Huko ndiko anakoishi.

    You must match your locative classes. If you use a Class 17 demonstrative (huko), you must use the Class 17 relative (-ko-). If you use Class 16 (hapa), use -po-.

How It Connects

Tap a pattern to see what it builds on and what it leads to.

-ko-Level 3Where or How with -ko-

Learn This First

To understand the -ko- manner or general locative relative, a learner must first be familiar with the Swahili noun class system, specifically the locative classes (16, 17, and 18). Since -ko- functions as a relative marker, the learner needs to understand how the 'o-of-reference' is infixed into verbs to create relative clauses. Finally, -ko- is part of a set of locative relatives (-po-, -ko-, -mo-) that distinguish between definite, general, and interior locations or manners.

Words in This Pattern

-ko--ko