-ao (kirejeshi)

Tenseless Relative -ao

Level 4

The specific agreement suffix -ao attaches to the end of a verb to mean 'who' or 'which' for Class 2 (wa-), Class 3 (m-), Class 11 (u-), and Class 14 (u-) nouns. It is strictly tenseless and is used for general facts or habits, not specific events.

How It Works

The specific relative suffix -ao is formed by combining the final vowel -a of Bantu verbs with the relative concord -o for Classes 2, 3, 11, and 14. Note that -ao is part of a broader general relative pattern where other noun classes attach their respective concords to the final vowel (e.g., -aye for Class 1, -acho for Class 7).

Rules for Formation:

  • No Tense Marker: The verb must have a subject prefix but absolutely no tense marker. (e.g., wasomao, NOT wanasomao).
  • Object Infixes: If an object marker is needed, it is placed immediately before the verb root (e.g., wakisomao - they who read it).
  • Monosyllabic Verbs: Short verbs drop their infinitive ku- marker in this form (e.g., kula becomes walao, NOT wakulao).
  • Affirmative Only: This suffix is only used in affirmative statements. In the negative, the relative concord moves inside the verb after the negative marker -si- (e.g., wasiosoma).
  • Arabic Loan Verbs: For verbs ending in -e, -i, or -u (like kujibu or kufikiri), the final vowel does not change to -a. The -o is simply added to the existing vowel (e.g., wajibuo).

Usage and Register:
This pattern is considered formal, literary, and proverbial. While native speakers understand it perfectly, in everyday spoken Swahili, people usually prefer amba- relatives (e.g., ambao wanasoma) or the tensed relative infix (e.g., wanaosoma). However, the tenseless relative is highly productive in written Swahili, journalism, and proverbs.

Negative Relatives Are Not All Identical:
Watu wasiosoma means “people who do not read,” using a tenseless negative relative. An amba clause can instead keep an ordinary tense: watu ambao hawakusoma (people who did not read). Do not replace every past or future negative relative with wasiosoma and assume its explicit time meaning survives.

Examples (4)

  1. Watu wasomao vitabu wana akili.

    People who read books are smart.

    Word by Word: People they-read-who books they-have intelligence.

    Class 2 (plural humans). Describes a general truth about people who read, with no specific time frame.

  2. Mti uangukao hauna matunda.

    A tree which falls has no fruit.

    Word by Word: Tree it-falls-which it-has-not fruit.

    Class 3 (singular tree). A proverbial statement using the tenseless relative.

  3. Wanafunzi wafikirio sana hufaulu mitihani.

    Students who think a lot pass exams.

    Word by Word: Students they-think-who a-lot they-usually-pass exams.

    Notice how the Arabic loan verb 'kufikiri' (to think) takes the suffix '-o' directly, becoming 'wafikirio' instead of changing its final vowel.

  4. Usiache mbachao kwa msala ujao.

    Don't leave your old mat for a praying mat which comes.

    Word by Word: You-should-not-leave old-mat-your for praying-mat it-comes-which.

    A famous proverb. 'ujao' (which comes) is a Class 3 tenseless relative.

Common Mistakes

  • Adding a tense marker to the verb.

    Watu wanasomao vitabu.
    Watu wasomao vitabu.

    The general relative suffix must attach directly to the verb stem without any tense marker. If you want to use a tense marker, you must use the relative infix (e.g., wanaosoma) or ambao.

  • Using the tenseless relative for specific, time-bound events.

    Watu wafikao jana.
    Watu waliofika jana.

    The tenseless relative is for general truths or habits. For a specific past event ('who arrived yesterday'), you must use a past tense relative construction.

How It Connects

Tap a pattern to see what it builds on and what it leads to.

-ao (kirejeshi)Level 4Tenseless Relative -ao

Learn This First

To use the general relative suffix -ao, you must understand how Swahili verbs are formed using subject markers and how the relative 'o-of-reference' markers function. This specific pattern is a tenseless relative construction where the relative marker for Class 2 or 3 is placed at the end of the verb root.

Words in This Pattern

-o