Embedded Relative Clauses
In linguistics, 'center embedding' is a universal term for placing a clause in the middle of a sentence. In Swahili, this simply refers to standard relative clauses that modify the subject of the main clause. For example, in 'The book [that Juma bought] got lost', the relative clause interrupts the main clause. While modifying a subject with a single relative clause is extremely common, placing one relative clause completely inside another creates complex nesting.
How It Works
Modifying a subject with a relative clause is a natural and frequent feature of everyday Swahili. It happens whenever a relative clause appears before the main verb (e.g., 'Kitabu alicho(ki)nunua Juma kimepotea' - 'The book that Juma bought is lost').
When constructing these sentences, keep these critical rules in mind:
- The Relative Triad: Swahili has three main ways to form relative clauses: amba- relatives, infixed tensed relatives, and tenseless suffix relatives. You can choose the best strategy based on tense and complexity.
- Noun Class Agreement and the '-o' of Reference: The relative marker (whether an infix or suffix) must strictly agree with the noun class of the head noun being modified. These markers are generally formed by attaching the '-o of reference' to the noun class's pronominal concord (e.g., ki- + -o = -cho-; vi- + -o = -vyo-). Note that for Class 1 (human singular), the relative marker is -ye- instead of an -o- based form, which applies to both Class 1 Relative -ye- infixes (e.g., aliyesoma) and tenseless suffixes (e.g., asomaye).
- Subject-Verb Inversion in Object Relative Clauses: When using an infixed or tenseless object relative clause (where the head noun is the object of the relative verb), if the subject of the relative clause is an explicit noun, it must follow the verb (e.g., 'Kitabu alichokinunua Juma', not 'Kitabu Juma alichokinunua'). Standard SVO order is allowed when using amba- relatives.
- Object Concords: If the head noun is the logical object of the relative clause, the relative verb may contain the matching object concord. While obligatory for animate objects, it is optional for inanimate objects. The relative marker itself establishes the syntactic binding to the head noun, not the object concord (e.g., alicho(ki)nunua).
- Amba- Relatives: Constructed by attaching the relative suffix to the stem amba- (e.g., Class 1 ambaye, Class 7 and 8 amba- Forms), followed by a standard conjugated verb. This avoids complex infixing and allows for all tenses.
- Tense Restrictions: Infixed relatives can only be used with specific tense and negative markers: -li-, -na-, -taka-, and the negative -si- (note that the standard future -ta- changes to -taka- when a relative infix is added). For other tenses (like -me- or -nge-), using amba- relatives is grammatically obligatory.
- Negation: The negative marker -si- replaces the tense marker entirely, creating a tenseless negative relative. The structural morpheme order is: Subject Marker + -si- + Relative Marker + (Object Marker) + Verb Root + Final Vowel (e.g., asiyemwona). To negate specific tenses (e.g., 'didn't buy', 'won't buy'), amba- relatives must be used with a standard negative verb.
- Tenseless Relatives: For habitual or general statements, the tenseless general relative suffix (which generally ends in -o, e.g., Tenseless Relative -ayo) is formed by attaching the relative suffix directly to the end of the verb root: Subject Marker + Verb Root + Relative Suffix (e.g., asomaye).
- Locative and Manner Relatives: Locative (-po-, -ko-, -mo-) and manner (-vyo-) relatives use this exact same pattern for expressing 'when', 'where', and 'how'.
- Monosyllabic Verbs: When an object concord is added to a relative verb, monosyllabic verbs (like kula, kuja) must drop the infinitive ku-.
Deeply nesting a relative clause inside another relative clause is much harder to process. While syntactically valid, native speakers often avoid deep nesting by coordinating shorter clauses. When deep nesting is used, amba- relatives are strongly preferred to reduce cognitive load, provided the tense allows it.
Examples (4)
- Kitabu alichokinunua Juma kimepotea.
The book that Juma bought got lost.
Word by Word: Book which-he-bought-it Juma has-gotten-lost.
This is a standard single center-embedded sentence. The relative clause 'alichokinunua Juma' interrupts the main clause 'Kitabu kimepotea'.
- Kitabu ambacho Juma amekinunua kimepotea.
The book that Juma has bought got lost.
Word by Word: Book which Juma has-bought-it has-gotten-lost.
Because the relative clause uses the perfect tense '-me-', the 'amba-' relative strategy is grammatically obligatory.
- Kitabu ambacho mtu ambaye Nick alimwona alikinunua kilipotea.
The book that the person who Nick saw bought got lost.
Word by Word: Book which person who Nick saw-him bought-it got-lost.
This is multiple center embedding. Notice how 'ambacho' and 'alikinunua' track 'kitabu' (Class 7), while 'ambaye' and 'alimwona' track 'mtu' (Class 1).
- Watoto ambao mtu ambaye ulimwona anawapenda wanacheza.
The children who the person who you saw likes are playing.
Word by Word: Children who person who you-saw-him likes-them are-playing.
The main clause is 'watoto wanacheza'. The nested clauses interrupt the subject and verb, requiring careful tracking of Class 2 ('watoto') and Class 1 ('mtu').
Common Mistakes
Dropping the obligatory object concord when the deeply nested relative clause refers to an animate object.
Mwanafunzi ambaye mwalimu ambaye Nick alimwona alifundisha alifaulu.Mwanafunzi ambaye mwalimu ambaye Nick alimwona alimfundisha alifaulu.The verb in an object relative clause must contain an object concord matching the head noun if the noun is animate (the '-m-' in 'alimfundisha' referring back to the animate noun 'mwanafunzi'). While optional for inanimate objects, this object marker is obligatory for animate objects to clarify who is doing what to whom, especially in complex nested sentences.
Using infixed (bound) relative markers instead of amba- in deep nesting, resulting in sentences that are extremely difficult to parse.
Kitabu mtu aliyemwona Nick alichonunua kilipotea.Kitabu ambacho mtu ambaye Nick alimwona alinunua kilipotea.While infixed relatives are syntactically possible in deep nesting, the amba- relative strategy is highly preferred to reduce cognitive load and clarify long-distance dependencies, making the sentence much easier to read and process.
How It Connects
Learn This First
Center embedding is a complex syntactic structure found in formal Swahili prose where a clause is placed inside another clause, often separating a subject from its main verb. To learn this, a learner must be comfortable with relative clause stacking, the use of the 'amba-' relative pronoun, and how content clauses ('kwamba') function as components of larger sentences.
- Stacked Relative Clauses
Center embedding involves nesting relative clauses within one another, so understanding how multiple relative clauses can modify a single noun phrase is a necessary step.
Level 6 - kwambaThat Content Clause
Center embedding frequently involves nesting content clauses (introduced by 'kwamba') inside other relative or main clauses.
Level 4
Related Patterns
- amba-Relative Clauses with Amba-
Center embedding relies almost exclusively on the amba- strategy rather than infixed relatives to handle the complex syntax.
Level 3 - Object Agreement
Deeply nested object relative clauses require an obligatory object marker for animate objects, and often use one for inanimate objects to clarify meaning across clause boundaries.
Foundations - Agreement Across the Sentence
Center embedding requires intense working memory to track multiple active noun classes across nested clauses without making agreement errors.
Foundations
Words in This Pattern
Practice Embedded Relative Clauses in Bubblegum
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