る/らる

Passive/honorific (Classical)

Level 6Sounds Like ru/raru (ukemi・sonkei)

In classical Japanese (Kobun), る and らる are versatile auxiliary verbs that perform four main roles: Passive (受身), Honorific (尊敬), Potential (可能), and Spontaneous (自発). They are the ancestors of the modern passive form.

How It Works

These auxiliaries are often remembered by the mnemonic Ji-Ka-U-Son (自・可・受・尊):

1. 受身 (Passive): Indicates an action done to the subject. The agent is usually marked by に.
2. 尊敬 (Honorific): A 'light' honorific expressing respect for the subject's natural status. Note: In Heian-period grammar, it is generally not used as an honorific when followed by the subsidiary verb (補助動詞) 給ふ（たまふ）.
3. 可能 (Potential): In early classical texts, this was almost exclusively used in negative or rhetorical contexts (e.g., 'cannot do').
4. 自発 (Spontaneous): Describes an action or feeling that arises naturally, often used with verbs of emotion like 思ふ（おもふ） or 眺む（ながむ）.

Conjugation Table (下二段型):
Both auxiliaries follow the Shimo-Nidan pattern:

  • る: れ / れ / る / るる / るれ / れよ
  • らる: られ / られ / らる / らるる / らるれ / られよ

Note: The 命令形 (Imperative) forms (れよ/られよ) are only used for Passive and Honorific meanings; they do not exist for Spontaneous or Potential meanings.

Morphology & Distinctions:

  • る: Attaches to the 未然形 (Mizenkei) of 四段 (Yodan), ナ変 (Na-hen), and ラ変 (Ra-hen) verbs.
  • らる: Attaches to the 未然形 (Mizenkei) of all other verbs. For サ変 (Sa-hen) verbs, it becomes せらる.
  • Contrast with す/さす: While both attach to the 未然形 (Mizenkei), る/らる focuses on passive/honorific/spontaneous states, whereas す/さす indicates causative actions (making/letting someone do something).

Examples (4)

  1. 人に笑はるな。

    Do not be laughed at by others.

    Word by Word: People by laugh-passive-do-not.

    This uses the passive (受身) function. 笑は（わらわ） is the 未然形 (Mizenkei) of the 四段 (Yodan) verb 笑ふ（わらふ）, so it takes る.

  2. 都のみぞ思ひやらるる。

    I cannot help but think only of the capital.

    Word by Word: Capital only (emphasis) think-spontaneous-attributive.

    This is the spontaneous (自発) function. The feeling of thinking about the capital arises naturally in the speaker's heart.

  3. 帝、仰せらる。

    The Emperor says (honorific).

    Word by Word: Emperor, say-honorific.

    This is the honorific (尊敬) function. 仰す（おおす） is a 下二段 (Shimo-nidan) verb, so it takes らる.

  4. え忘れられぬ。

    I cannot forget.

    Word by Word: Cannot forget-potential-negative.

    This is the potential (可能) function. In classical Japanese, potential is often paired with the adverb 「え」 and a negative ending.

Common Mistakes

  • Using 'ru' for Nidan verbs.

    起きる（おくる）
    起きらる（おきらる）

    In classical Japanese, る only attaches to 四段 (Yodan), ナ変 (Na-hen), and ラ変 (Ra-hen) verbs. Since 起く（おく） is a 上二段 (Kami-nidan) verb, you must use らる.

  • Assuming 're-tamau' is a double honorific.

    仰せられ給ふ（Honorific + Honorific）
    仰せられ給ふ（Passive/Spontaneous + Honorific）

    When る/らる is followed by the honorific subsidiary verb (補助動詞) 給ふ（たまふ）, the る/らる part CANNOT be honorific. It must be passive, potential, or spontaneous.

How It Connects

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る/らるLevel 6Passive/honorific (Classical)

Learn This First

The classical auxiliary verbs 'ru' and 'raru' are the precursors to the modern Japanese passive and honorific forms. To understand them, a learner needs a solid grasp of how the passive voice functions in modern Japanese for both action-reception and showing respect to a subject. Additionally, knowledge of verb conjugation groups is necessary to understand which suffix attaches to which verb stem.