Completed or Resultative Action Meanings

Level 3

Rufe means ‘close’; derived saye means ‘buy up’.

How It Works

Grade 4 verbs have long final -e in their base form. Two-syllable members have high–low tones; three-syllable members have high–low–high tones. Their object behavior parallels Grade 1: the base form remains before short object pronouns and indirect objects. Before noun objects, final -e usually shortens, and three-syllable verbs normally end in low tone. Long -e is also permitted there; verbs of three or more syllables pronounced with that long vowel end in high tone.

Lexical members include rufe ‘close’, gane ‘recognize, understand’ and gode ‘thank’. Established derived contrasts include saya ‘buy’ versus saye ‘buy up’, and yanka ‘cut’ versus yanke ‘sever’.

Compare Zan rufe taga ‘I will close a window’ with Na rufe taga ‘I closed a window’. Subject-TAM marking changes the action frame independently of grade.

Examples (3)

  1. Zan rufe taga.

    I will close a window.

    Future marking combines with lexical Grade 4 rufe.

  2. Mun saye kayan duka.

    We bought up all the goods.

    Saye has the established buying-up meaning.

  3. Ya yanke igiyar.

    He severed the rope.

    Yanke expresses cutting through.

How It Connects

Tap a pattern to see what it builds on and what it leads to.

Completed or Resultative Action MeaningsLevel 3

Learn This First

Recognize the regular Grade1 comparison and totalizing noun phrases before learning the attested Grade4 vowel/tone family and lexical meanings such as buying up all the goods.

Words in This Pattern

rufe