Reflexive vs. Reciprocal Non-active
In Albanian, the non-active voice is a single morphological category that covers both reflexive and reciprocal meanings. It is formed using suffixes like -em in the present tense, the particle 'u' in the aorist, and the auxiliary 'jam' in perfect tenses.
How It Works
The non-active voice (forma joveprore) is a versatile grammatical category in Standard Albanian. Unlike English, which uses pronouns like 'myself' or 'each other', Albanian primarily uses verb morphology to express reflexive, reciprocal, passive, and impersonal meanings.
1. Morphological Formation:
- Present Tense: Uses suffixes -em, -esh, -et, -emi, -eni, -en. For verbs ending in a vowel, a mandatory -h- buffer is inserted (e.g., la-h-em from laj, kthe-h-em from kthej). For example, lahem (I wash myself).
- Aorist (Past Simple): Uses the particle u before the verb stem. In the 3rd person singular, the active ending is dropped and specific vowel shifts occur: -o becomes -ua (e.g., shkroi → u shkrua) and -e becomes -ye (e.g., ktheu → u kthye).
- Perfect Tenses: Uses the auxiliary jam + the participle. For example, jemi parë (we have seen each other).
2. Reflexive, Reciprocal, and Passive:
The non-active form is syncretic. In the plural, takohemi can mean 'we meet each other' (reciprocal) or 'we are met' (passive). To avoid ambiguity, speakers may use the active voice with the reciprocal pronoun njëri-tjetrin. Note: You cannot use 'njëri-tjetrin' with a non-active verb form.
3. Impersonal Construction:
The 3rd person singular non-active is frequently used for impersonal statements where the subject is general or unknown. Common examples include flitet (it is spoken/rumored), thuhet (it is said), or dihet (it is known).
4. Important Nuances:
The particle u in the aorist is an invariable voice marker, not a pronoun. It does not change based on gender or number. Many daily verbs like vishem (I get dressed) are usually used in the non-active form for personal routines.
Examples (6)
- Çdo mëngjes, ai lahet dhe vishet shpejt.
Every morning, he washes himself and dresses himself quickly.
Word by Word: Every morning, he washes-self and dresses-self quickly.
Here, the non-active suffixes -et indicate reflexive actions performed by the subject on himself.
- Ne shihemi shpesh në bibliotekë.
We see each other often in the library.
Word by Word: We see-each-other often in library.
The 1st person plural non-active ending -emi indicates a reciprocal action between 'us'.
- Thuhet se kjo ndërtesë është shumë e vjetër.
It is said that this building is very old.
Word by Word: It-is-said that this building is very [particle] old.
The 3rd person singular non-active form 'thuhet' (from 'them') is used here as an impersonal construction.
- Ata u përqafuan kur u takuan.
They hugged each other when they met.
Word by Word: They [particle] hugged when [particle] met.
The particle 'u' combined with the aorist tense creates a reciprocal meaning in the past.
- Ata godasin njëri-tjetrin gjatë lojës.
They hit each other during the game.
Word by Word: They hit one-the-other during game.
This uses the active voice + a reciprocal pronoun to remove the ambiguity of the non-active form 'goditen'.
- Libri u shkrua vitin e kaluar.
The book was written last year.
Word by Word: Book [particle] was-written year the past.
In the aorist, the active 'shkroi' undergoes a vowel shift to 'u shkrua' in the non-active voice.
Common Mistakes
Using active object clitics to form a reflexive.
Unë më laj.Unë lahem.Learners often try to use the clitic 'më' (me) to mean 'myself', but Albanian requires the non-active verb form 'lahem' for this meaning.
Treating the particle 'u' as a movable pronoun.
Ata u dje panë.Ata u panë dje.The particle 'u' must stay immediately before the verb (or other clitics). It cannot be separated by adverbs like 'dje' (yesterday).
Using a singular subject when you mean 'they meet each other'.
Different MeaningAi takohet me shokun.Ata takohen.'Ai takohet me shokun' is correct and means 'he meets his friend'. For a reciprocal 'they meet', use the plural: 'Ata takohen'.
How It Connects
Learn This First
To distinguish between reflexive and reciprocal meanings in the non-active voice, learners must first be comfortable with the formation of non-active verbs (using the 'u' marker or specific endings). They also need to understand the basic concept of reflexivity and how the reciprocal pronoun 'njëri-tjetrin' functions to clarify mutual actions.
- Non-active Present with 'u'
The non-active voice in Albanian is the primary morphological tool used to express both reflexive and reciprocal meanings.
Level 2 - njëri-tjetrinReciprocal Pronoun: 'Njëri-tjetrin'
Understanding the reciprocal pronoun is essential for distinguishing between cases where the non-active verb form alone is sufficient and where an explicit pronoun is needed for clarity.
Level 2
Related Patterns
- -em / -esh / -etNon-active Present Endings
This pattern explains the specific suffixes used to form the non-active voice in the present tense.
Level 2 - u + AoristNon-active Aorist
This pattern details how the particle 'u' is used to form the non-active voice in the past simple tense.
Level 2 - jam + ParticiplePresent Perfect with 'Jam'
The non-active voice uses 'jam' as an auxiliary in perfect tenses, which is a key part of its conjugation.
Level 2 - Middle Voice Nuances
The middle voice is another function of the non-active morphology, often used for spontaneous or anticausative actions.
Level 5 - -esha / -eshe / -ejNon-Active Imperfect
Explains how reflexive and reciprocal actions are expressed in the continuous past.
Level 3
Practice Reflexive vs. Reciprocal Non-active in Bubblegum
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