-yo- (ngeli ya 4)

Class 4 Relative -yo-

Level 3

The morpheme -yo- is the relative concord for Class 4 nouns (plural inanimate objects like miti 'trees'). It links a noun to a modifying clause, translating to 'which' or 'that'.

How It Works

The Class 4 relative marker -yo- is formed by combining the Class 4 pronominal prefix i- with the referential vowel -o (i + o > yo). It strictly enforces noun class agreement and carries no inherent tense.

1. The Infixed Strategy
This is highly common in everyday Swahili. The marker is placed right after the tense marker, and this position remains exactly the same whether the noun is the subject or the object of the clause. However, it can only be used with specific affirmative tenses (-na- for present, -li- for past, and -taka- for future). Note that the standard future marker -ta- must change to -taka- (e.g., 'trees which will fall' is miti itakayoanguka, never *itayoanguka). For negation, the marker -si- is used; it is not a tense, but a tenseless general negative marker that replaces the tense slot (e.g., miti isiyoanguka).

2. The Amba- Strategy
Using amba- relatives (e.g., miti ambayo...) is ubiquitous and neutral in register. Crucially, amba- is mandatory for tenses that do not support the infixed strategy, such as the perfect (-me-), conditional (-nge-), habitual (hu-), and specific negative tenses (e.g., miti ambayo haikuanguka for 'trees which did not fall'). For example, you cannot say *imeyoanguka; you must use ambayo imeanguka ('which have fallen'). Linguists note that amba- is a fully indigenous grammaticalization derived from a historical Bantu verb meaning 'to say', not a modern English copy.

3. The Suffixed Strategy
Attaching -yo- to the end of the verb (e.g., iangukayo) creates a tenseless or general relative. While this form is highly formal, literary, or proverbial for standard action verbs, it is heavily used in everyday colloquial Swahili with the verbs 'to be' (kuwa) and 'to have' (kuwa na), such as iliyo or iliyoko.

Important Distinctions:

  • Not just for Class 4: Classes 6 (ma- plural) and 9 (n- singular) also use -yo- as their relative marker. Do not assume -yo- always means 'plural'.
  • Object Infixes: Do not confuse the relative marker -yo- ('which') with the Class 4 object marker -i- ('them'). In a transitive relative clause, both can appear together: miti niliyoikata (ni-li-yo-i-kata = I-past-which-them-cut).

Examples (5)

  1. Miji yote tuliyoitembelea ilikuwa na mandhari mazuri.

    All the towns that we visited had beautiful scenery.

    Word by Word: Towns all we-past-which-them-visit they-were with beautiful scenery.

    Tembelea takes the towns as objects; Class 4 -i- accompanies relative -yo- in the formal object-relative model.

  2. Miti ambayo itakatwa ni hii.

    The trees which will be cut are these.

    Word by Word: Trees which they-will-be-cut are these.

    Uses the analytic amba- strategy, which allows the standard future tense marker -ta- to remain unchanged on the verb.

  3. Hii ni mistari niliyoiandika jana.

    These are the lines that I wrote yesterday.

    Word by Word: These are lines I-past-which-write yesterday.

    A standard infixed relative clause modifying the Class 4 noun 'mistari' (lines).

  4. Miti itakayoanguka ni mikubwa.

    The trees which will fall are big.

    Word by Word: Trees they-will-which-fall are big.

    Demonstrates the mandatory change from -ta- to -taka- when infixing the relative marker in the future tense.

  5. Mizigo niliyoibeba ni mizito.

    The luggage which I carried is heavy.

    Word by Word: Luggage I-past-which-them-carry is heavy.

    Shows both the relative marker -yo- ('which') and the object infix -i- ('them') used together in formal Standard Swahili.

Common Mistakes

  • Using the standard future marker -ta- instead of -taka- with an infixed relative.

    Miti itayoanguka.
    Miti itakayoanguka.

    When infixing a relative marker into a verb, the future tense marker -ta- must change to -taka-. Alternatively, you can use the amba- strategy (ambayo itaanguka).

  • Thinking an inanimate relative clause needs an object marker.

    Different MeaningMiti niliyokata.
    Miti niliyoikata.

    'Miti niliyokata' ('the trees I cut') is correct. With an inanimate head noun, the relative clause normally needs no object marker. Adding -i- (miti niliyoikata) makes the trees specific or emphasised. With a person as the object, the marker is usually kept (mtu niliyemwona).

How It Connects

Tap a pattern to see what it builds on and what it leads to.

-yo- (ngeli ya 4)Level 3Class 4 Relative -yo-

Learn This First

To learn the Class 4 relative marker -yo-, you first need to be familiar with Class 4 nouns (the plural of the M-MI class) and their corresponding subject marker 'i-'. Additionally, understanding the general mechanics of how the relative -o- infix is inserted into the Swahili verb template is essential.

Words in This Pattern

-yo--yo